diff --git a/src/acp/client.test.ts b/src/acp/client.test.ts
index fb806eed943..96822423c94 100644
--- a/src/acp/client.test.ts
+++ b/src/acp/client.test.ts
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
-import { mkdir, mkdtemp, rm, writeFile } from "node:fs/promises";
-import { tmpdir } from "node:os";
+import { mkdir, writeFile } from "node:fs/promises";
 import path from "node:path";
 import type { RequestPermissionRequest } from "@agentclientprotocol/sdk";
 import { afterEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+import { createTrackedTempDirs } from "../test-utils/tracked-temp-dirs.js";
 import {
   resolveAcpClientSpawnEnv,
   resolveAcpClientSpawnInvocation,
@@ -35,22 +35,11 @@ function makePermissionRequest(
   };
 }
 
-const tempDirs: string[] = [];
-
-async function createTempDir(): Promise<string> {
-  const dir = await mkdtemp(path.join(tmpdir(), "openclaw-acp-client-test-"));
-  tempDirs.push(dir);
-  return dir;
-}
+const tempDirs = createTrackedTempDirs();
+const createTempDir = () => tempDirs.make("openclaw-acp-client-test-");
 
 afterEach(async () => {
-  while (tempDirs.length > 0) {
-    const dir = tempDirs.pop();
-    if (!dir) {
-      continue;
-    }
-    await rm(dir, { recursive: true, force: true });
-  }
+  await tempDirs.cleanup();
 });
 
 describe("resolveAcpClientSpawnEnv", () => {
diff --git a/src/acp/translator.ts b/src/acp/translator.ts
index bc51509e776..5039cb15504 100644
--- a/src/acp/translator.ts
+++ b/src/acp/translator.ts
@@ -150,17 +150,9 @@ export class AcpGatewayAgent implements Agent {
 
     const sessionId = randomUUID();
     const meta = parseSessionMeta(params._meta);
-    const sessionKey = await resolveSessionKey({
+    const sessionKey = await this.resolveSessionKeyFromMeta({
       meta,
       fallbackKey: `acp:${sessionId}`,
-      gateway: this.gateway,
-      opts: this.opts,
-    });
-    await resetSessionIfNeeded({
-      meta,
-      sessionKey,
-      gateway: this.gateway,
-      opts: this.opts,
     });
 
     const session = this.sessionStore.createSession({
@@ -182,17 +174,9 @@ export class AcpGatewayAgent implements Agent {
     }
 
     const meta = parseSessionMeta(params._meta);
-    const sessionKey = await resolveSessionKey({
+    const sessionKey = await this.resolveSessionKeyFromMeta({
       meta,
       fallbackKey: params.sessionId,
-      gateway: this.gateway,
-      opts: this.opts,
-    });
-    await resetSessionIfNeeded({
-      meta,
-      sessionKey,
-      gateway: this.gateway,
-      opts: this.opts,
     });
 
     const session = this.sessionStore.createSession({
@@ -328,6 +312,25 @@ export class AcpGatewayAgent implements Agent {
     }
   }
 
+  private async resolveSessionKeyFromMeta(params: {
+    meta: ReturnType<typeof parseSessionMeta>;
+    fallbackKey: string;
+  }): Promise<string> {
+    const sessionKey = await resolveSessionKey({
+      meta: params.meta,
+      fallbackKey: params.fallbackKey,
+      gateway: this.gateway,
+      opts: this.opts,
+    });
+    await resetSessionIfNeeded({
+      meta: params.meta,
+      sessionKey,
+      gateway: this.gateway,
+      opts: this.opts,
+    });
+    return sessionKey;
+  }
+
   private async handleAgentEvent(evt: EventFrame): Promise<void> {
     const payload = evt.payload as Record<string, unknown> | undefined;
     if (!payload) {
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/usage.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/usage.ts
index 60c43c9c3c8..92c22ac14b2 100644
--- a/src/agents/auth-profiles/usage.ts
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/usage.ts
@@ -241,16 +241,9 @@ export async function markAuthProfileUsed(params: {
       if (!freshStore.profiles[profileId]) {
         return false;
       }
-      freshStore.usageStats = freshStore.usageStats ?? {};
-      freshStore.usageStats[profileId] = {
-        ...freshStore.usageStats[profileId],
-        lastUsed: Date.now(),
-        errorCount: 0,
-        cooldownUntil: undefined,
-        disabledUntil: undefined,
-        disabledReason: undefined,
-        failureCounts: undefined,
-      };
+      updateUsageStatsEntry(freshStore, profileId, (existing) =>
+        resetUsageStats(existing, { lastUsed: Date.now() }),
+      );
       return true;
     },
   });
@@ -262,16 +255,9 @@ export async function markAuthProfileUsed(params: {
     return;
   }
 
-  store.usageStats = store.usageStats ?? {};
-  store.usageStats[profileId] = {
-    ...store.usageStats[profileId],
-    lastUsed: Date.now(),
-    errorCount: 0,
-    cooldownUntil: undefined,
-    disabledUntil: undefined,
-    disabledReason: undefined,
-    failureCounts: undefined,
-  };
+  updateUsageStatsEntry(store, profileId, (existing) =>
+    resetUsageStats(existing, { lastUsed: Date.now() }),
+  );
   saveAuthProfileStore(store, agentDir);
 }
 
@@ -360,6 +346,30 @@ export function resolveProfileUnusableUntilForDisplay(
   return resolveProfileUnusableUntil(stats);
 }
 
+function resetUsageStats(
+  existing: ProfileUsageStats | undefined,
+  overrides?: Partial<ProfileUsageStats>,
+): ProfileUsageStats {
+  return {
+    ...existing,
+    errorCount: 0,
+    cooldownUntil: undefined,
+    disabledUntil: undefined,
+    disabledReason: undefined,
+    failureCounts: undefined,
+    ...overrides,
+  };
+}
+
+function updateUsageStatsEntry(
+  store: AuthProfileStore,
+  profileId: string,
+  updater: (existing: ProfileUsageStats | undefined) => ProfileUsageStats,
+): void {
+  store.usageStats = store.usageStats ?? {};
+  store.usageStats[profileId] = updater(store.usageStats[profileId]);
+}
+
 function keepActiveWindowOrRecompute(params: {
   existingUntil: number | undefined;
   now: number;
@@ -448,9 +458,6 @@ export async function markAuthProfileFailure(params: {
       if (!profile || isAuthCooldownBypassedForProvider(profile.provider)) {
         return false;
       }
-      freshStore.usageStats = freshStore.usageStats ?? {};
-      const existing = freshStore.usageStats[profileId] ?? {};
-
       const now = Date.now();
       const providerKey = normalizeProviderId(profile.provider);
       const cfgResolved = resolveAuthCooldownConfig({
@@ -458,12 +465,14 @@ export async function markAuthProfileFailure(params: {
         providerId: providerKey,
       });
 
-      freshStore.usageStats[profileId] = computeNextProfileUsageStats({
-        existing,
-        now,
-        reason,
-        cfgResolved,
-      });
+      updateUsageStatsEntry(freshStore, profileId, (existing) =>
+        computeNextProfileUsageStats({
+          existing: existing ?? {},
+          now,
+          reason,
+          cfgResolved,
+        }),
+      );
       return true;
     },
   });
@@ -475,8 +484,6 @@ export async function markAuthProfileFailure(params: {
     return;
   }
 
-  store.usageStats = store.usageStats ?? {};
-  const existing = store.usageStats[profileId] ?? {};
   const now = Date.now();
   const providerKey = normalizeProviderId(store.profiles[profileId]?.provider ?? "");
   const cfgResolved = resolveAuthCooldownConfig({
@@ -484,12 +491,14 @@ export async function markAuthProfileFailure(params: {
     providerId: providerKey,
   });
 
-  store.usageStats[profileId] = computeNextProfileUsageStats({
-    existing,
-    now,
-    reason,
-    cfgResolved,
-  });
+  updateUsageStatsEntry(store, profileId, (existing) =>
+    computeNextProfileUsageStats({
+      existing: existing ?? {},
+      now,
+      reason,
+      cfgResolved,
+    }),
+  );
   saveAuthProfileStore(store, agentDir);
 }
 
@@ -528,14 +537,7 @@ export async function clearAuthProfileCooldown(params: {
         return false;
       }
 
-      freshStore.usageStats[profileId] = {
-        ...freshStore.usageStats[profileId],
-        errorCount: 0,
-        cooldownUntil: undefined,
-        disabledUntil: undefined,
-        disabledReason: undefined,
-        failureCounts: undefined,
-      };
+      updateUsageStatsEntry(freshStore, profileId, (existing) => resetUsageStats(existing));
       return true;
     },
   });
@@ -547,13 +549,6 @@ export async function clearAuthProfileCooldown(params: {
     return;
   }
 
-  store.usageStats[profileId] = {
-    ...store.usageStats[profileId],
-    errorCount: 0,
-    cooldownUntil: undefined,
-    disabledUntil: undefined,
-    disabledReason: undefined,
-    failureCounts: undefined,
-  };
+  updateUsageStatsEntry(store, profileId, (existing) => resetUsageStats(existing));
   saveAuthProfileStore(store, agentDir);
 }
diff --git a/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-gateway.ts b/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-gateway.ts
index d2a0ad7259f..04f88497843 100644
--- a/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-gateway.ts
+++ b/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-gateway.ts
@@ -6,12 +6,9 @@ import {
   type ExecSecurity,
   buildEnforcedShellCommand,
   evaluateShellAllowlist,
-  maxAsk,
-  minSecurity,
   recordAllowlistUse,
   requiresExecApproval,
   resolveAllowAlwaysPatterns,
-  resolveExecApprovals,
 } from "../infra/exec-approvals.js";
 import { detectCommandObfuscation } from "../infra/exec-obfuscation-detect.js";
 import type { SafeBinProfile } from "../infra/exec-safe-bin-policy.js";
@@ -19,10 +16,13 @@ import { logInfo } from "../logger.js";
 import { markBackgrounded, tail } from "./bash-process-registry.js";
 import {
   buildExecApprovalRequesterContext,
-  resolveRegisteredExecApprovalDecision,
   buildExecApprovalTurnSourceContext,
   registerExecApprovalRequestForHostOrThrow,
 } from "./bash-tools.exec-approval-request.js";
+import {
+  resolveApprovalDecisionOrUndefined,
+  resolveExecHostApprovalContext,
+} from "./bash-tools.exec-host-shared.js";
 import {
   DEFAULT_APPROVAL_TIMEOUT_MS,
   DEFAULT_NOTIFY_TAIL_CHARS,
@@ -67,16 +67,12 @@ export type ProcessGatewayAllowlistResult = {
 export async function processGatewayAllowlist(
   params: ProcessGatewayAllowlistParams,
 ): Promise<ProcessGatewayAllowlistResult> {
-  const approvals = resolveExecApprovals(params.agentId, {
+  const { approvals, hostSecurity, hostAsk, askFallback } = resolveExecHostApprovalContext({
+    agentId: params.agentId,
     security: params.security,
     ask: params.ask,
+    host: "gateway",
   });
-  const hostSecurity = minSecurity(params.security, approvals.agent.security);
-  const hostAsk = maxAsk(params.ask, approvals.agent.ask);
-  const askFallback = approvals.agent.askFallback;
-  if (hostSecurity === "deny") {
-    throw new Error("exec denied: host=gateway security=deny");
-  }
   const allowlistEval = evaluateShellAllowlist({
     command: params.command,
     allowlist: approvals.allowlist,
@@ -172,20 +168,19 @@ export async function processGatewayAllowlist(
     preResolvedDecision = registration.finalDecision;
 
     void (async () => {
-      let decision: string | null = null;
-      try {
-        decision = await resolveRegisteredExecApprovalDecision({
-          approvalId,
-          preResolvedDecision,
-        });
-      } catch {
-        emitExecSystemEvent(
-          `Exec denied (gateway id=${approvalId}, approval-request-failed): ${params.command}`,
-          {
-            sessionKey: params.notifySessionKey,
-            contextKey,
-          },
-        );
+      const decision = await resolveApprovalDecisionOrUndefined({
+        approvalId,
+        preResolvedDecision,
+        onFailure: () =>
+          emitExecSystemEvent(
+            `Exec denied (gateway id=${approvalId}, approval-request-failed): ${params.command}`,
+            {
+              sessionKey: params.notifySessionKey,
+              contextKey,
+            },
+          ),
+      });
+      if (decision === undefined) {
         return;
       }
 
diff --git a/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-node.ts b/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-node.ts
index c9a85566c05..74c740cc1da 100644
--- a/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-node.ts
+++ b/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-node.ts
@@ -5,10 +5,7 @@ import {
   type ExecAsk,
   type ExecSecurity,
   evaluateShellAllowlist,
-  maxAsk,
-  minSecurity,
   requiresExecApproval,
-  resolveExecApprovals,
   resolveExecApprovalsFromFile,
 } from "../infra/exec-approvals.js";
 import { detectCommandObfuscation } from "../infra/exec-obfuscation-detect.js";
@@ -17,10 +14,13 @@ import { parsePreparedSystemRunPayload } from "../infra/system-run-approval-cont
 import { logInfo } from "../logger.js";
 import {
   buildExecApprovalRequesterContext,
-  resolveRegisteredExecApprovalDecision,
   buildExecApprovalTurnSourceContext,
   registerExecApprovalRequestForHostOrThrow,
 } from "./bash-tools.exec-approval-request.js";
+import {
+  resolveApprovalDecisionOrUndefined,
+  resolveExecHostApprovalContext,
+} from "./bash-tools.exec-host-shared.js";
 import {
   DEFAULT_APPROVAL_TIMEOUT_MS,
   createApprovalSlug,
@@ -56,16 +56,12 @@ export type ExecuteNodeHostCommandParams = {
 export async function executeNodeHostCommand(
   params: ExecuteNodeHostCommandParams,
 ): Promise<AgentToolResult<ExecToolDetails>> {
-  const approvals = resolveExecApprovals(params.agentId, {
+  const { hostSecurity, hostAsk, askFallback } = resolveExecHostApprovalContext({
+    agentId: params.agentId,
     security: params.security,
     ask: params.ask,
+    host: "node",
   });
-  const hostSecurity = minSecurity(params.security, approvals.agent.security);
-  const hostAsk = maxAsk(params.ask, approvals.agent.ask);
-  const askFallback = approvals.agent.askFallback;
-  if (hostSecurity === "deny") {
-    throw new Error("exec denied: host=node security=deny");
-  }
   if (params.boundNode && params.requestedNode && params.boundNode !== params.requestedNode) {
     throw new Error(`exec node not allowed (bound to ${params.boundNode})`);
   }
@@ -243,17 +239,16 @@ export async function executeNodeHostCommand(
     preResolvedDecision = registration.finalDecision;
 
     void (async () => {
-      let decision: string | null = null;
-      try {
-        decision = await resolveRegisteredExecApprovalDecision({
-          approvalId,
-          preResolvedDecision,
-        });
-      } catch {
-        emitExecSystemEvent(
-          `Exec denied (node=${nodeId} id=${approvalId}, approval-request-failed): ${params.command}`,
-          { sessionKey: params.notifySessionKey, contextKey },
-        );
+      const decision = await resolveApprovalDecisionOrUndefined({
+        approvalId,
+        preResolvedDecision,
+        onFailure: () =>
+          emitExecSystemEvent(
+            `Exec denied (node=${nodeId} id=${approvalId}, approval-request-failed): ${params.command}`,
+            { sessionKey: params.notifySessionKey, contextKey },
+          ),
+      });
+      if (decision === undefined) {
         return;
       }
 
diff --git a/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-shared.ts b/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-shared.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..37ee0320c3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/bash-tools.exec-host-shared.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+import {
+  maxAsk,
+  minSecurity,
+  resolveExecApprovals,
+  type ExecAsk,
+  type ExecSecurity,
+} from "../infra/exec-approvals.js";
+import { resolveRegisteredExecApprovalDecision } from "./bash-tools.exec-approval-request.js";
+
+type ResolvedExecApprovals = ReturnType<typeof resolveExecApprovals>;
+
+export type ExecHostApprovalContext = {
+  approvals: ResolvedExecApprovals;
+  hostSecurity: ExecSecurity;
+  hostAsk: ExecAsk;
+  askFallback: ResolvedExecApprovals["agent"]["askFallback"];
+};
+
+export function resolveExecHostApprovalContext(params: {
+  agentId?: string;
+  security: ExecSecurity;
+  ask: ExecAsk;
+  host: "gateway" | "node";
+}): ExecHostApprovalContext {
+  const approvals = resolveExecApprovals(params.agentId, {
+    security: params.security,
+    ask: params.ask,
+  });
+  const hostSecurity = minSecurity(params.security, approvals.agent.security);
+  const hostAsk = maxAsk(params.ask, approvals.agent.ask);
+  const askFallback = approvals.agent.askFallback;
+  if (hostSecurity === "deny") {
+    throw new Error(`exec denied: host=${params.host} security=deny`);
+  }
+  return { approvals, hostSecurity, hostAsk, askFallback };
+}
+
+export async function resolveApprovalDecisionOrUndefined(params: {
+  approvalId: string;
+  preResolvedDecision: string | null | undefined;
+  onFailure: () => void;
+}): Promise<string | null | undefined> {
+  try {
+    return await resolveRegisteredExecApprovalDecision({
+      approvalId: params.approvalId,
+      preResolvedDecision: params.preResolvedDecision,
+    });
+  } catch {
+    params.onFailure();
+    return undefined;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/src/agents/failover-error.ts b/src/agents/failover-error.ts
index 97cdd3ae6e0..7b9f5194fd3 100644
--- a/src/agents/failover-error.ts
+++ b/src/agents/failover-error.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import { readErrorName } from "../infra/errors.js";
 import {
   classifyFailoverReason,
   isAuthPermanentErrorMessage,
@@ -82,13 +83,6 @@ function getStatusCode(err: unknown): number | undefined {
   return undefined;
 }
 
-function getErrorName(err: unknown): string {
-  if (!err || typeof err !== "object") {
-    return "";
-  }
-  return "name" in err ? String(err.name) : "";
-}
-
 function getErrorCode(err: unknown): string | undefined {
   if (!err || typeof err !== "object") {
     return undefined;
@@ -127,7 +121,7 @@ function hasTimeoutHint(err: unknown): boolean {
   if (!err) {
     return false;
   }
-  if (getErrorName(err) === "TimeoutError") {
+  if (readErrorName(err) === "TimeoutError") {
     return true;
   }
   const message = getErrorMessage(err);
@@ -141,7 +135,7 @@ export function isTimeoutError(err: unknown): boolean {
   if (!err || typeof err !== "object") {
     return false;
   }
-  if (getErrorName(err) !== "AbortError") {
+  if (readErrorName(err) !== "AbortError") {
     return false;
   }
   const message = getErrorMessage(err);
diff --git a/src/agents/google-gemini-switch.live.test.ts b/src/agents/google-gemini-switch.live.test.ts
index 80973455dab..38303602ce4 100644
--- a/src/agents/google-gemini-switch.live.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/google-gemini-switch.live.test.ts
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ import { completeSimple, getModel } from "@mariozechner/pi-ai";
 import { Type } from "@sinclair/typebox";
 import { describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
 import { isTruthyEnvValue } from "../infra/env.js";
+import { makeZeroUsageSnapshot } from "./usage.js";
 
 const GEMINI_KEY = process.env.GEMINI_API_KEY ?? "";
 const LIVE = isTruthyEnvValue(process.env.GEMINI_LIVE_TEST) || isTruthyEnvValue(process.env.LIVE);
@@ -39,20 +40,7 @@ describeLive("gemini live switch", () => {
               api: "google-gemini-cli",
               provider: "google-antigravity",
               model: "claude-sonnet-4-20250514",
-              usage: {
-                input: 0,
-                output: 0,
-                cacheRead: 0,
-                cacheWrite: 0,
-                totalTokens: 0,
-                cost: {
-                  input: 0,
-                  output: 0,
-                  cacheRead: 0,
-                  cacheWrite: 0,
-                  total: 0,
-                },
-              },
+              usage: makeZeroUsageSnapshot(),
               stopReason: "stop",
               timestamp: now,
             },
diff --git a/src/agents/openclaw-tools.agents.test.ts b/src/agents/openclaw-tools.agents.test.ts
index 3ff997300ce..6cf8afa93fc 100644
--- a/src/agents/openclaw-tools.agents.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/openclaw-tools.agents.test.ts
@@ -1,10 +1,8 @@
 import { beforeEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+import { createPerSenderSessionConfig } from "./test-helpers/session-config.js";
 
 let configOverride: ReturnType<(typeof import("../config/config.js"))["loadConfig"]> = {
-  session: {
-    mainKey: "main",
-    scope: "per-sender",
-  },
+  session: createPerSenderSessionConfig(),
 };
 
 vi.mock("../config/config.js", async (importOriginal) => {
@@ -24,10 +22,7 @@ describe("agents_list", () => {
 
   function setConfigWithAgentList(agentList: AgentConfig[]) {
     configOverride = {
-      session: {
-        mainKey: "main",
-        scope: "per-sender",
-      },
+      session: createPerSenderSessionConfig(),
       agents: {
         list: agentList,
       },
@@ -51,10 +46,7 @@ describe("agents_list", () => {
 
   beforeEach(() => {
     configOverride = {
-      session: {
-        mainKey: "main",
-        scope: "per-sender",
-      },
+      session: createPerSenderSessionConfig(),
     };
   });
 
diff --git a/src/agents/openclaw-tools.subagents.sessions-spawn-depth-limits.test.ts b/src/agents/openclaw-tools.subagents.sessions-spawn-depth-limits.test.ts
index b764189c149..7a5b93d7ae1 100644
--- a/src/agents/openclaw-tools.subagents.sessions-spawn-depth-limits.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/openclaw-tools.subagents.sessions-spawn-depth-limits.test.ts
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ import os from "node:os";
 import path from "node:path";
 import { beforeEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
 import { addSubagentRunForTests, resetSubagentRegistryForTests } from "./subagent-registry.js";
+import { createPerSenderSessionConfig } from "./test-helpers/session-config.js";
 import { createSessionsSpawnTool } from "./tools/sessions-spawn-tool.js";
 
 const callGatewayMock = vi.fn();
@@ -13,10 +14,7 @@ vi.mock("../gateway/call.js", () => ({
 
 let storeTemplatePath = "";
 let configOverride: Record<string, unknown> = {
-  session: {
-    mainKey: "main",
-    scope: "per-sender",
-  },
+  session: createPerSenderSessionConfig(),
 };
 
 vi.mock("../config/config.js", async (importOriginal) => {
@@ -35,11 +33,7 @@ function writeStore(agentId: string, store: Record<string, unknown>) {
 
 function setSubagentLimits(subagents: Record<string, unknown>) {
   configOverride = {
-    session: {
-      mainKey: "main",
-      scope: "per-sender",
-      store: storeTemplatePath,
-    },
+    session: createPerSenderSessionConfig({ store: storeTemplatePath }),
     agents: {
       defaults: {
         subagents,
@@ -75,11 +69,7 @@ describe("sessions_spawn depth + child limits", () => {
       `openclaw-subagent-depth-${Date.now()}-${Math.random().toString(16).slice(2)}-{agentId}.json`,
     );
     configOverride = {
-      session: {
-        mainKey: "main",
-        scope: "per-sender",
-        store: storeTemplatePath,
-      },
+      session: createPerSenderSessionConfig({ store: storeTemplatePath }),
     };
 
     callGatewayMock.mockImplementation(async (opts: unknown) => {
@@ -177,11 +167,7 @@ describe("sessions_spawn depth + child limits", () => {
 
   it("rejects when active children for requester session reached maxChildrenPerAgent", async () => {
     configOverride = {
-      session: {
-        mainKey: "main",
-        scope: "per-sender",
-        store: storeTemplatePath,
-      },
+      session: createPerSenderSessionConfig({ store: storeTemplatePath }),
       agents: {
         defaults: {
           subagents: {
@@ -214,11 +200,7 @@ describe("sessions_spawn depth + child limits", () => {
 
   it("does not use subagent maxConcurrent as a per-parent spawn gate", async () => {
     configOverride = {
-      session: {
-        mainKey: "main",
-        scope: "per-sender",
-        store: storeTemplatePath,
-      },
+      session: createPerSenderSessionConfig({ store: storeTemplatePath }),
       agents: {
         defaults: {
           subagents: {
diff --git a/src/agents/openclaw-tools.subagents.sessions-spawn.allowlist.test.ts b/src/agents/openclaw-tools.subagents.sessions-spawn.allowlist.test.ts
index d66046268bc..49698bc6395 100644
--- a/src/agents/openclaw-tools.subagents.sessions-spawn.allowlist.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/openclaw-tools.subagents.sessions-spawn.allowlist.test.ts
@@ -55,6 +55,40 @@ describe("openclaw-tools: subagents (sessions_spawn allowlist)", () => {
     return tool.execute(callId, { task: "do thing", agentId, sandbox });
   }
 
+  function setResearchUnsandboxedConfig(params?: { includeSandboxedDefault?: boolean }) {
+    setSessionsSpawnConfigOverride({
+      session: {
+        mainKey: "main",
+        scope: "per-sender",
+      },
+      agents: {
+        ...(params?.includeSandboxedDefault
+          ? {
+              defaults: {
+                sandbox: {
+                  mode: "all",
+                },
+              },
+            }
+          : {}),
+        list: [
+          {
+            id: "main",
+            subagents: {
+              allowAgents: ["research"],
+            },
+          },
+          {
+            id: "research",
+            sandbox: {
+              mode: "off",
+            },
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+    });
+  }
+
   async function expectAllowedSpawn(params: {
     allowAgents: string[];
     agentId: string;
@@ -156,33 +190,7 @@ describe("openclaw-tools: subagents (sessions_spawn allowlist)", () => {
   });
 
   it("forbids sandboxed cross-agent spawns that would unsandbox the child", async () => {
-    setSessionsSpawnConfigOverride({
-      session: {
-        mainKey: "main",
-        scope: "per-sender",
-      },
-      agents: {
-        defaults: {
-          sandbox: {
-            mode: "all",
-          },
-        },
-        list: [
-          {
-            id: "main",
-            subagents: {
-              allowAgents: ["research"],
-            },
-          },
-          {
-            id: "research",
-            sandbox: {
-              mode: "off",
-            },
-          },
-        ],
-      },
-    });
+    setResearchUnsandboxedConfig({ includeSandboxedDefault: true });
 
     const result = await executeSpawn("call11", "research");
     const details = result.details as { status?: string; error?: string };
@@ -193,28 +201,7 @@ describe("openclaw-tools: subagents (sessions_spawn allowlist)", () => {
   });
 
   it('forbids sandbox="require" when target runtime is unsandboxed', async () => {
-    setSessionsSpawnConfigOverride({
-      session: {
-        mainKey: "main",
-        scope: "per-sender",
-      },
-      agents: {
-        list: [
-          {
-            id: "main",
-            subagents: {
-              allowAgents: ["research"],
-            },
-          },
-          {
-            id: "research",
-            sandbox: {
-              mode: "off",
-            },
-          },
-        ],
-      },
-    });
+    setResearchUnsandboxedConfig();
 
     const result = await executeSpawn("call12", "research", "require");
     const details = result.details as { status?: string; error?: string };
diff --git a/src/agents/pi-embedded-runner.splitsdktools.test.ts b/src/agents/pi-embedded-runner.splitsdktools.test.ts
index 9a376ebf6f0..fb212ca1dc2 100644
--- a/src/agents/pi-embedded-runner.splitsdktools.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/pi-embedded-runner.splitsdktools.test.ts
@@ -1,17 +1,6 @@
-import type { AgentTool, AgentToolResult } from "@mariozechner/pi-agent-core";
-import { Type } from "@sinclair/typebox";
 import { describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
 import { splitSdkTools } from "./pi-embedded-runner.js";
-
-function createStubTool(name: string): AgentTool {
-  return {
-    name,
-    label: name,
-    description: "",
-    parameters: Type.Object({}),
-    execute: async () => ({}) as AgentToolResult<unknown>,
-  };
-}
+import { createStubTool } from "./test-helpers/pi-tool-stubs.js";
 
 describe("splitSdkTools", () => {
   const tools = [
diff --git a/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.e2e-harness.ts b/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.e2e-harness.ts
index 0c9a9240df0..53fc38233f4 100644
--- a/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.e2e-harness.ts
+++ b/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.e2e-harness.ts
@@ -182,6 +182,16 @@ export function emitAssistantLifecycleErrorAndEnd(params: {
   params.emit({ type: "agent_end" });
 }
 
+export function createReasoningFinalAnswerMessage(): AssistantMessage {
+  return {
+    role: "assistant",
+    content: [
+      { type: "thinking", thinking: "Because it helps" },
+      { type: "text", text: "Final answer" },
+    ],
+  } as AssistantMessage;
+}
+
 type LifecycleErrorAgentEvent = {
   stream?: unknown;
   data?: {
diff --git a/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.handlers.messages.ts b/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.handlers.messages.ts
index a32c9fdf219..a988ebcc653 100644
--- a/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.handlers.messages.ts
+++ b/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.handlers.messages.ts
@@ -346,6 +346,33 @@ export function handleMessageEnd(
     maybeEmitReasoning();
   }
 
+  const emitSplitResultAsBlockReply = (
+    splitResult: ReturnType<typeof ctx.consumeReplyDirectives> | null | undefined,
+  ) => {
+    if (!splitResult || !onBlockReply) {
+      return;
+    }
+    const {
+      text: cleanedText,
+      mediaUrls,
+      audioAsVoice,
+      replyToId,
+      replyToTag,
+      replyToCurrent,
+    } = splitResult;
+    // Emit if there's content OR audioAsVoice flag (to propagate the flag).
+    if (cleanedText || (mediaUrls && mediaUrls.length > 0) || audioAsVoice) {
+      void onBlockReply({
+        text: cleanedText,
+        mediaUrls: mediaUrls?.length ? mediaUrls : undefined,
+        audioAsVoice,
+        replyToId,
+        replyToTag,
+        replyToCurrent,
+      });
+    }
+  };
+
   if (
     (ctx.state.blockReplyBreak === "message_end" ||
       (ctx.blockChunker ? ctx.blockChunker.hasBuffered() : ctx.state.blockBuffer.length > 0)) &&
@@ -369,28 +396,7 @@ export function handleMessageEnd(
         );
       } else {
         ctx.state.lastBlockReplyText = text;
-        const splitResult = ctx.consumeReplyDirectives(text, { final: true });
-        if (splitResult) {
-          const {
-            text: cleanedText,
-            mediaUrls,
-            audioAsVoice,
-            replyToId,
-            replyToTag,
-            replyToCurrent,
-          } = splitResult;
-          // Emit if there's content OR audioAsVoice flag (to propagate the flag).
-          if (cleanedText || (mediaUrls && mediaUrls.length > 0) || audioAsVoice) {
-            void onBlockReply({
-              text: cleanedText,
-              mediaUrls: mediaUrls?.length ? mediaUrls : undefined,
-              audioAsVoice,
-              replyToId,
-              replyToTag,
-              replyToCurrent,
-            });
-          }
-        }
+        emitSplitResultAsBlockReply(ctx.consumeReplyDirectives(text, { final: true }));
       }
     }
   }
@@ -403,27 +409,7 @@ export function handleMessageEnd(
   }
 
   if (ctx.state.blockReplyBreak === "text_end" && onBlockReply) {
-    const tailResult = ctx.consumeReplyDirectives("", { final: true });
-    if (tailResult) {
-      const {
-        text: cleanedText,
-        mediaUrls,
-        audioAsVoice,
-        replyToId,
-        replyToTag,
-        replyToCurrent,
-      } = tailResult;
-      if (cleanedText || (mediaUrls && mediaUrls.length > 0) || audioAsVoice) {
-        void onBlockReply({
-          text: cleanedText,
-          mediaUrls: mediaUrls?.length ? mediaUrls : undefined,
-          audioAsVoice,
-          replyToId,
-          replyToTag,
-          replyToCurrent,
-        });
-      }
-    }
+    emitSplitResultAsBlockReply(ctx.consumeReplyDirectives("", { final: true }));
   }
 
   ctx.state.deltaBuffer = "";
diff --git a/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.subscribe-embedded-pi-session.emits-reasoning-as-separate-message-enabled.test.ts b/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.subscribe-embedded-pi-session.emits-reasoning-as-separate-message-enabled.test.ts
index 98b4ce09237..515bfd4e3b1 100644
--- a/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.subscribe-embedded-pi-session.emits-reasoning-as-separate-message-enabled.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.subscribe-embedded-pi-session.emits-reasoning-as-separate-message-enabled.test.ts
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ import type { AssistantMessage } from "@mariozechner/pi-ai";
 import { describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
 import {
   THINKING_TAG_CASES,
+  createReasoningFinalAnswerMessage,
   createStubSessionHarness,
 } from "./pi-embedded-subscribe.e2e-harness.js";
 import { subscribeEmbeddedPiSession } from "./pi-embedded-subscribe.js";
@@ -31,13 +32,7 @@ describe("subscribeEmbeddedPiSession", () => {
   it("emits reasoning as a separate message when enabled", () => {
     const { emit, onBlockReply } = createReasoningBlockReplyHarness();
 
-    const assistantMessage = {
-      role: "assistant",
-      content: [
-        { type: "thinking", thinking: "Because it helps" },
-        { type: "text", text: "Final answer" },
-      ],
-    } as AssistantMessage;
+    const assistantMessage = createReasoningFinalAnswerMessage();
 
     emit({ type: "message_end", message: assistantMessage });
 
diff --git a/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.subscribe-embedded-pi-session.keeps-assistanttexts-final-answer-block-replies-are.test.ts b/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.subscribe-embedded-pi-session.keeps-assistanttexts-final-answer-block-replies-are.test.ts
index 710b1f280fa..87f824473d7 100644
--- a/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.subscribe-embedded-pi-session.keeps-assistanttexts-final-answer-block-replies-are.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/pi-embedded-subscribe.subscribe-embedded-pi-session.keeps-assistanttexts-final-answer-block-replies-are.test.ts
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
-import type { AssistantMessage } from "@mariozechner/pi-ai";
 import { describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
 import {
+  createReasoningFinalAnswerMessage,
   createStubSessionHarness,
   emitAssistantTextDelta,
   emitAssistantTextEnd,
@@ -22,13 +22,7 @@ describe("subscribeEmbeddedPiSession", () => {
     emitAssistantTextDelta({ emit, delta: "answer" });
     emitAssistantTextEnd({ emit });
 
-    const assistantMessage = {
-      role: "assistant",
-      content: [
-        { type: "thinking", thinking: "Because it helps" },
-        { type: "text", text: "Final answer" },
-      ],
-    } as AssistantMessage;
+    const assistantMessage = createReasoningFinalAnswerMessage();
 
     emit({ type: "message_end", message: assistantMessage });
 
@@ -52,13 +46,7 @@ describe("subscribeEmbeddedPiSession", () => {
 
     expect(onPartialReply).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
 
-    const assistantMessage = {
-      role: "assistant",
-      content: [
-        { type: "thinking", thinking: "Because it helps" },
-        { type: "text", text: "Final answer" },
-      ],
-    } as AssistantMessage;
+    const assistantMessage = createReasoningFinalAnswerMessage();
 
     emit({ type: "message_end", message: assistantMessage });
     emitAssistantTextEnd({ emit, content: "Draft reply" });
diff --git a/src/agents/pi-model-discovery.auth.test.ts b/src/agents/pi-model-discovery.auth.test.ts
index 0804ed42312..c4d4bae25d5 100644
--- a/src/agents/pi-model-discovery.auth.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/pi-model-discovery.auth.test.ts
@@ -9,6 +9,15 @@ async function createAgentDir(): Promise<string> {
   return await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), "openclaw-pi-auth-storage-"));
 }
 
+async function withAgentDir(run: (agentDir: string) => Promise<void>): Promise<void> {
+  const agentDir = await createAgentDir();
+  try {
+    await run(agentDir);
+  } finally {
+    await fs.rm(agentDir, { recursive: true, force: true });
+  }
+}
+
 async function pathExists(pathname: string): Promise<boolean> {
   try {
     await fs.stat(pathname);
@@ -18,10 +27,25 @@ async function pathExists(pathname: string): Promise<boolean> {
   }
 }
 
+function writeRuntimeOpenRouterProfile(agentDir: string): void {
+  saveAuthProfileStore(
+    {
+      version: 1,
+      profiles: {
+        "openrouter:default": {
+          type: "api_key",
+          provider: "openrouter",
+          key: "sk-or-v1-runtime",
+        },
+      },
+    },
+    agentDir,
+  );
+}
+
 describe("discoverAuthStorage", () => {
   it("loads runtime credentials from auth-profiles without writing auth.json", async () => {
-    const agentDir = await createAgentDir();
-    try {
+    await withAgentDir(async (agentDir) => {
       saveAuthProfileStore(
         {
           version: 1,
@@ -61,27 +85,12 @@ describe("discoverAuthStorage", () => {
       });
 
       expect(await pathExists(path.join(agentDir, "auth.json"))).toBe(false);
-    } finally {
-      await fs.rm(agentDir, { recursive: true, force: true });
-    }
+    });
   });
 
   it("scrubs static api_key entries from legacy auth.json and keeps oauth entries", async () => {
-    const agentDir = await createAgentDir();
-    try {
-      saveAuthProfileStore(
-        {
-          version: 1,
-          profiles: {
-            "openrouter:default": {
-              type: "api_key",
-              provider: "openrouter",
-              key: "sk-or-v1-runtime",
-            },
-          },
-        },
-        agentDir,
-      );
+    await withAgentDir(async (agentDir) => {
+      writeRuntimeOpenRouterProfile(agentDir);
       await fs.writeFile(
         path.join(agentDir, "auth.json"),
         JSON.stringify(
@@ -109,53 +118,39 @@ describe("discoverAuthStorage", () => {
         type: "oauth",
         access: "oauth-access",
       });
-    } finally {
-      await fs.rm(agentDir, { recursive: true, force: true });
-    }
+    });
   });
 
   it("preserves legacy auth.json when auth store is forced read-only", async () => {
-    const agentDir = await createAgentDir();
-    const previous = process.env.OPENCLAW_AUTH_STORE_READONLY;
-    process.env.OPENCLAW_AUTH_STORE_READONLY = "1";
-    try {
-      saveAuthProfileStore(
-        {
-          version: 1,
-          profiles: {
-            "openrouter:default": {
-              type: "api_key",
-              provider: "openrouter",
-              key: "sk-or-v1-runtime",
+    await withAgentDir(async (agentDir) => {
+      const previous = process.env.OPENCLAW_AUTH_STORE_READONLY;
+      process.env.OPENCLAW_AUTH_STORE_READONLY = "1";
+      try {
+        writeRuntimeOpenRouterProfile(agentDir);
+        await fs.writeFile(
+          path.join(agentDir, "auth.json"),
+          JSON.stringify(
+            {
+              openrouter: { type: "api_key", key: "legacy-static-key" },
             },
-          },
-        },
-        agentDir,
-      );
-      await fs.writeFile(
-        path.join(agentDir, "auth.json"),
-        JSON.stringify(
-          {
-            openrouter: { type: "api_key", key: "legacy-static-key" },
-          },
-          null,
-          2,
-        ),
-      );
+            null,
+            2,
+          ),
+        );
 
-      discoverAuthStorage(agentDir);
+        discoverAuthStorage(agentDir);
 
-      const parsed = JSON.parse(await fs.readFile(path.join(agentDir, "auth.json"), "utf8")) as {
-        [key: string]: unknown;
-      };
-      expect(parsed.openrouter).toMatchObject({ type: "api_key", key: "legacy-static-key" });
-    } finally {
-      if (previous === undefined) {
-        delete process.env.OPENCLAW_AUTH_STORE_READONLY;
-      } else {
-        process.env.OPENCLAW_AUTH_STORE_READONLY = previous;
+        const parsed = JSON.parse(await fs.readFile(path.join(agentDir, "auth.json"), "utf8")) as {
+          [key: string]: unknown;
+        };
+        expect(parsed.openrouter).toMatchObject({ type: "api_key", key: "legacy-static-key" });
+      } finally {
+        if (previous === undefined) {
+          delete process.env.OPENCLAW_AUTH_STORE_READONLY;
+        } else {
+          process.env.OPENCLAW_AUTH_STORE_READONLY = previous;
+        }
       }
-      await fs.rm(agentDir, { recursive: true, force: true });
-    }
+    });
   });
 });
diff --git a/src/agents/pi-tools.policy.test.ts b/src/agents/pi-tools.policy.test.ts
index 77bc99dc92c..4b7a16b4d92 100644
--- a/src/agents/pi-tools.policy.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/pi-tools.policy.test.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,3 @@
-import type { AgentTool, AgentToolResult } from "@mariozechner/pi-agent-core";
-import { Type } from "@sinclair/typebox";
 import { describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
 import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/config.js";
 import {
@@ -7,16 +5,7 @@ import {
   isToolAllowedByPolicyName,
   resolveSubagentToolPolicy,
 } from "./pi-tools.policy.js";
-
-function createStubTool(name: string): AgentTool {
-  return {
-    name,
-    label: name,
-    description: "",
-    parameters: Type.Object({}),
-    execute: async () => ({}) as AgentToolResult<unknown>,
-  };
-}
+import { createStubTool } from "./test-helpers/pi-tool-stubs.js";
 
 describe("pi-tools.policy", () => {
   it("treats * in allow as allow-all", () => {
diff --git a/src/agents/pi-tools.sandbox-mounted-paths.workspace-only.test.ts b/src/agents/pi-tools.sandbox-mounted-paths.workspace-only.test.ts
index 6e0563d7540..1e02c2be160 100644
--- a/src/agents/pi-tools.sandbox-mounted-paths.workspace-only.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/pi-tools.sandbox-mounted-paths.workspace-only.test.ts
@@ -18,6 +18,30 @@ vi.mock("../infra/shell-env.js", async (importOriginal) => {
 type ToolWithExecute = {
   execute: (toolCallId: string, args: unknown, signal?: AbortSignal) => Promise<unknown>;
 };
+type CodingToolsInput = NonNullable<Parameters<typeof createOpenClawCodingTools>[0]>;
+
+const APPLY_PATCH_PAYLOAD = `*** Begin Patch
+*** Add File: /agent/pwned.txt
++owned-by-apply-patch
+*** End Patch`;
+
+function resolveApplyPatchTool(
+  params: Pick<CodingToolsInput, "sandbox" | "workspaceDir"> & { config: OpenClawConfig },
+): ToolWithExecute {
+  const tools = createOpenClawCodingTools({
+    sandbox: params.sandbox,
+    workspaceDir: params.workspaceDir,
+    config: params.config,
+    modelProvider: "openai",
+    modelId: "gpt-5.2",
+  });
+  const applyPatchTool = tools.find((t) => t.name === "apply_patch") as ToolWithExecute | undefined;
+  if (!applyPatchTool) {
+    throw new Error("apply_patch tool missing");
+  }
+  return applyPatchTool;
+}
+
 describe("tools.fs.workspaceOnly", () => {
   it("defaults to allowing sandbox mounts outside the workspace root", async () => {
     await withUnsafeMountedSandboxHarness(async ({ sandboxRoot, agentRoot, sandbox }) => {
@@ -62,32 +86,18 @@ describe("tools.fs.workspaceOnly", () => {
 
   it("enforces apply_patch workspace-only in sandbox mounts by default", async () => {
     await withUnsafeMountedSandboxHarness(async ({ sandboxRoot, agentRoot, sandbox }) => {
-      const cfg: OpenClawConfig = {
-        tools: {
-          allow: ["read", "exec"],
-          exec: { applyPatch: { enabled: true } },
-        },
-      };
-      const tools = createOpenClawCodingTools({
+      const applyPatchTool = resolveApplyPatchTool({
         sandbox,
         workspaceDir: sandboxRoot,
-        config: cfg,
-        modelProvider: "openai",
-        modelId: "gpt-5.2",
+        config: {
+          tools: {
+            allow: ["read", "exec"],
+            exec: { applyPatch: { enabled: true } },
+          },
+        } as OpenClawConfig,
       });
-      const applyPatchTool = tools.find((t) => t.name === "apply_patch") as
-        | ToolWithExecute
-        | undefined;
-      if (!applyPatchTool) {
-        throw new Error("apply_patch tool missing");
-      }
 
-      const patch = `*** Begin Patch
-*** Add File: /agent/pwned.txt
-+owned-by-apply-patch
-*** End Patch`;
-
-      await expect(applyPatchTool.execute("t1", { input: patch })).rejects.toThrow(
+      await expect(applyPatchTool.execute("t1", { input: APPLY_PATCH_PAYLOAD })).rejects.toThrow(
         /Path escapes sandbox root/i,
       );
       await expect(fs.stat(path.join(agentRoot, "pwned.txt"))).rejects.toMatchObject({
@@ -98,32 +108,18 @@ describe("tools.fs.workspaceOnly", () => {
 
   it("allows apply_patch outside workspace root when explicitly disabled", async () => {
     await withUnsafeMountedSandboxHarness(async ({ sandboxRoot, agentRoot, sandbox }) => {
-      const cfg: OpenClawConfig = {
-        tools: {
-          allow: ["read", "exec"],
-          exec: { applyPatch: { enabled: true, workspaceOnly: false } },
-        },
-      };
-      const tools = createOpenClawCodingTools({
+      const applyPatchTool = resolveApplyPatchTool({
         sandbox,
         workspaceDir: sandboxRoot,
-        config: cfg,
-        modelProvider: "openai",
-        modelId: "gpt-5.2",
+        config: {
+          tools: {
+            allow: ["read", "exec"],
+            exec: { applyPatch: { enabled: true, workspaceOnly: false } },
+          },
+        } as OpenClawConfig,
       });
-      const applyPatchTool = tools.find((t) => t.name === "apply_patch") as
-        | ToolWithExecute
-        | undefined;
-      if (!applyPatchTool) {
-        throw new Error("apply_patch tool missing");
-      }
 
-      const patch = `*** Begin Patch
-*** Add File: /agent/pwned.txt
-+owned-by-apply-patch
-*** End Patch`;
-
-      await applyPatchTool.execute("t2", { input: patch });
+      await applyPatchTool.execute("t2", { input: APPLY_PATCH_PAYLOAD });
       expect(await fs.readFile(path.join(agentRoot, "pwned.txt"), "utf8")).toBe(
         "owned-by-apply-patch\n",
       );
diff --git a/src/agents/sandbox/docker.windows.test.ts b/src/agents/sandbox/docker.windows.test.ts
index d9fe1d1f567..3dd294e8360 100644
--- a/src/agents/sandbox/docker.windows.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/sandbox/docker.windows.test.ts
@@ -1,25 +1,14 @@
-import { mkdir, mkdtemp, rm, writeFile } from "node:fs/promises";
-import { tmpdir } from "node:os";
+import { mkdir, writeFile } from "node:fs/promises";
 import path from "node:path";
 import { afterEach, describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
+import { createTrackedTempDirs } from "../../test-utils/tracked-temp-dirs.js";
 import { resolveDockerSpawnInvocation } from "./docker.js";
 
-const tempDirs: string[] = [];
-
-async function createTempDir(): Promise<string> {
-  const dir = await mkdtemp(path.join(tmpdir(), "openclaw-docker-spawn-test-"));
-  tempDirs.push(dir);
-  return dir;
-}
+const tempDirs = createTrackedTempDirs();
+const createTempDir = () => tempDirs.make("openclaw-docker-spawn-test-");
 
 afterEach(async () => {
-  while (tempDirs.length > 0) {
-    const dir = tempDirs.pop();
-    if (!dir) {
-      continue;
-    }
-    await rm(dir, { recursive: true, force: true });
-  }
+  await tempDirs.cleanup();
 });
 
 describe("resolveDockerSpawnInvocation", () => {
diff --git a/src/agents/subagent-registry-queries.ts b/src/agents/subagent-registry-queries.ts
index 62fd743998b..2407acb8c5b 100644
--- a/src/agents/subagent-registry-queries.ts
+++ b/src/agents/subagent-registry-queries.ts
@@ -79,53 +79,17 @@ export function countActiveRunsForSessionFromRuns(
   return count;
 }
 
-export function countActiveDescendantRunsFromRuns(
+function forEachDescendantRun(
   runs: Map<string, SubagentRunRecord>,
   rootSessionKey: string,
-): number {
+  visitor: (runId: string, entry: SubagentRunRecord) => void,
+): boolean {
   const root = rootSessionKey.trim();
   if (!root) {
-    return 0;
+    return false;
   }
   const pending = [root];
   const visited = new Set<string>([root]);
-  let count = 0;
-  while (pending.length > 0) {
-    const requester = pending.shift();
-    if (!requester) {
-      continue;
-    }
-    for (const entry of runs.values()) {
-      if (entry.requesterSessionKey !== requester) {
-        continue;
-      }
-      if (typeof entry.endedAt !== "number") {
-        count += 1;
-      }
-      const childKey = entry.childSessionKey.trim();
-      if (!childKey || visited.has(childKey)) {
-        continue;
-      }
-      visited.add(childKey);
-      pending.push(childKey);
-    }
-  }
-  return count;
-}
-
-function countPendingDescendantRunsInternal(
-  runs: Map<string, SubagentRunRecord>,
-  rootSessionKey: string,
-  excludeRunId?: string,
-): number {
-  const root = rootSessionKey.trim();
-  if (!root) {
-    return 0;
-  }
-  const excludedRunId = excludeRunId?.trim();
-  const pending = [root];
-  const visited = new Set<string>([root]);
-  let count = 0;
   for (let index = 0; index < pending.length; index += 1) {
     const requester = pending[index];
     if (!requester) {
@@ -135,11 +99,7 @@ function countPendingDescendantRunsInternal(
       if (entry.requesterSessionKey !== requester) {
         continue;
       }
-      const runEnded = typeof entry.endedAt === "number";
-      const cleanupCompleted = typeof entry.cleanupCompletedAt === "number";
-      if ((!runEnded || !cleanupCompleted) && runId !== excludedRunId) {
-        count += 1;
-      }
+      visitor(runId, entry);
       const childKey = entry.childSessionKey.trim();
       if (!childKey || visited.has(childKey)) {
         continue;
@@ -148,6 +108,44 @@ function countPendingDescendantRunsInternal(
       pending.push(childKey);
     }
   }
+  return true;
+}
+
+export function countActiveDescendantRunsFromRuns(
+  runs: Map<string, SubagentRunRecord>,
+  rootSessionKey: string,
+): number {
+  let count = 0;
+  if (
+    !forEachDescendantRun(runs, rootSessionKey, (_runId, entry) => {
+      if (typeof entry.endedAt !== "number") {
+        count += 1;
+      }
+    })
+  ) {
+    return 0;
+  }
+  return count;
+}
+
+function countPendingDescendantRunsInternal(
+  runs: Map<string, SubagentRunRecord>,
+  rootSessionKey: string,
+  excludeRunId?: string,
+): number {
+  const excludedRunId = excludeRunId?.trim();
+  let count = 0;
+  if (
+    !forEachDescendantRun(runs, rootSessionKey, (runId, entry) => {
+      const runEnded = typeof entry.endedAt === "number";
+      const cleanupCompleted = typeof entry.cleanupCompletedAt === "number";
+      if ((!runEnded || !cleanupCompleted) && runId !== excludedRunId) {
+        count += 1;
+      }
+    })
+  ) {
+    return 0;
+  }
   return count;
 }
 
@@ -170,30 +168,13 @@ export function listDescendantRunsForRequesterFromRuns(
   runs: Map<string, SubagentRunRecord>,
   rootSessionKey: string,
 ): SubagentRunRecord[] {
-  const root = rootSessionKey.trim();
-  if (!root) {
-    return [];
-  }
-  const pending = [root];
-  const visited = new Set<string>([root]);
   const descendants: SubagentRunRecord[] = [];
-  while (pending.length > 0) {
-    const requester = pending.shift();
-    if (!requester) {
-      continue;
-    }
-    for (const entry of runs.values()) {
-      if (entry.requesterSessionKey !== requester) {
-        continue;
-      }
+  if (
+    !forEachDescendantRun(runs, rootSessionKey, (_runId, entry) => {
       descendants.push(entry);
-      const childKey = entry.childSessionKey.trim();
-      if (!childKey || visited.has(childKey)) {
-        continue;
-      }
-      visited.add(childKey);
-      pending.push(childKey);
-    }
+    })
+  ) {
+    return [];
   }
   return descendants;
 }
diff --git a/src/agents/test-helpers/pi-tool-stubs.ts b/src/agents/test-helpers/pi-tool-stubs.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..71fe740234f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/test-helpers/pi-tool-stubs.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+import type { AgentTool, AgentToolResult } from "@mariozechner/pi-agent-core";
+import { Type } from "@sinclair/typebox";
+
+export function createStubTool(name: string): AgentTool {
+  return {
+    name,
+    label: name,
+    description: "",
+    parameters: Type.Object({}),
+    execute: async () => ({}) as AgentToolResult<unknown>,
+  };
+}
diff --git a/src/agents/test-helpers/session-config.ts b/src/agents/test-helpers/session-config.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6017e01d0e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/test-helpers/session-config.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../../config/config.js";
+
+export function createPerSenderSessionConfig(
+  overrides: Partial<NonNullable<OpenClawConfig["session"]>> = {},
+): NonNullable<OpenClawConfig["session"]> {
+  return {
+    mainKey: "main",
+    scope: "per-sender",
+    ...overrides,
+  };
+}
diff --git a/src/agents/tool-display-common.ts b/src/agents/tool-display-common.ts
index 7d098297198..a7564c98052 100644
--- a/src/agents/tool-display-common.ts
+++ b/src/agents/tool-display-common.ts
@@ -63,6 +63,31 @@ export function resolveActionArg(args: unknown): string | undefined {
   return action || undefined;
 }
 
+export function resolveToolVerbAndDetailForArgs(params: {
+  toolKey: string;
+  args?: unknown;
+  meta?: string;
+  spec?: ToolDisplaySpec;
+  fallbackDetailKeys?: string[];
+  detailMode: "first" | "summary";
+  detailCoerce?: CoerceDisplayValueOptions;
+  detailMaxEntries?: number;
+  detailFormatKey?: (raw: string) => string;
+}): { verb?: string; detail?: string } {
+  return resolveToolVerbAndDetail({
+    toolKey: params.toolKey,
+    args: params.args,
+    meta: params.meta,
+    action: resolveActionArg(params.args),
+    spec: params.spec,
+    fallbackDetailKeys: params.fallbackDetailKeys,
+    detailMode: params.detailMode,
+    detailCoerce: params.detailCoerce,
+    detailMaxEntries: params.detailMaxEntries,
+    detailFormatKey: params.detailFormatKey,
+  });
+}
+
 export function coerceDisplayValue(
   value: unknown,
   opts: CoerceDisplayValueOptions = {},
diff --git a/src/agents/tool-display.ts b/src/agents/tool-display.ts
index 17183d6fe1d..1285b4dc52f 100644
--- a/src/agents/tool-display.ts
+++ b/src/agents/tool-display.ts
@@ -6,8 +6,7 @@ import {
   formatToolDetailText,
   formatDetailKey,
   normalizeToolName,
-  resolveActionArg,
-  resolveToolVerbAndDetail,
+  resolveToolVerbAndDetailForArgs,
   type ToolDisplaySpec as ToolDisplaySpecBase,
 } from "./tool-display-common.js";
 import TOOL_DISPLAY_OVERRIDES_JSON from "./tool-display-overrides.json" with { type: "json" };
@@ -67,12 +66,10 @@ export function resolveToolDisplay(params: {
   const emoji = spec?.emoji ?? FALLBACK.emoji ?? "🧩";
   const title = spec?.title ?? defaultTitle(name);
   const label = spec?.label ?? title;
-  const action = resolveActionArg(params.args);
-  let { verb, detail } = resolveToolVerbAndDetail({
+  let { verb, detail } = resolveToolVerbAndDetailForArgs({
     toolKey: key,
     args: params.args,
     meta: params.meta,
-    action,
     spec,
     fallbackDetailKeys: FALLBACK.detailKeys,
     detailMode: "summary",
@@ -96,7 +93,7 @@ export function resolveToolDisplay(params: {
 
 export function formatToolDetail(display: ToolDisplay): string | undefined {
   const detailRaw = display.detail ? redactToolDetail(display.detail) : undefined;
-  return formatToolDetailText(detailRaw, { prefixWithWith: true });
+  return formatToolDetailText(detailRaw);
 }
 
 export function formatToolSummary(display: ToolDisplay): string {
diff --git a/src/agents/tools/discord-actions-guild.ts b/src/agents/tools/discord-actions-guild.ts
index 630c6e9acf1..93d81f5724e 100644
--- a/src/agents/tools/discord-actions-guild.ts
+++ b/src/agents/tools/discord-actions-guild.ts
@@ -29,16 +29,7 @@ import {
   readStringArrayParam,
   readStringParam,
 } from "./common.js";
-
-function readParentIdParam(params: Record<string, unknown>): string | null | undefined {
-  if (params.clearParent === true) {
-    return null;
-  }
-  if (params.parentId === null) {
-    return null;
-  }
-  return readStringParam(params, "parentId");
-}
+import { readDiscordParentIdParam } from "./discord-actions-shared.js";
 
 type DiscordRoleMutation = (params: {
   guildId: string;
@@ -287,7 +278,7 @@ export async function handleDiscordGuildAction(
       const guildId = readStringParam(params, "guildId", { required: true });
       const name = readStringParam(params, "name", { required: true });
       const type = readNumberParam(params, "type", { integer: true });
-      const parentId = readParentIdParam(params);
+      const parentId = readDiscordParentIdParam(params);
       const topic = readStringParam(params, "topic");
       const position = readNumberParam(params, "position", { integer: true });
       const nsfw = params.nsfw as boolean | undefined;
@@ -325,7 +316,7 @@ export async function handleDiscordGuildAction(
       const name = readStringParam(params, "name");
       const topic = readStringParam(params, "topic");
       const position = readNumberParam(params, "position", { integer: true });
-      const parentId = readParentIdParam(params);
+      const parentId = readDiscordParentIdParam(params);
       const nsfw = params.nsfw as boolean | undefined;
       const rateLimitPerUser = readNumberParam(params, "rateLimitPerUser", {
         integer: true,
@@ -388,7 +379,7 @@ export async function handleDiscordGuildAction(
       const channelId = readStringParam(params, "channelId", {
         required: true,
       });
-      const parentId = readParentIdParam(params);
+      const parentId = readDiscordParentIdParam(params);
       const position = readNumberParam(params, "position", { integer: true });
       if (accountId) {
         await moveChannelDiscord(
diff --git a/src/agents/tools/discord-actions-shared.ts b/src/agents/tools/discord-actions-shared.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6f8283b5240
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/tools/discord-actions-shared.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+import { readStringParam } from "./common.js";
+
+export function readDiscordParentIdParam(
+  params: Record<string, unknown>,
+): string | null | undefined {
+  if (params.clearParent === true) {
+    return null;
+  }
+  if (params.parentId === null) {
+    return null;
+  }
+  return readStringParam(params, "parentId");
+}
diff --git a/src/agents/tools/image-tool.test.ts b/src/agents/tools/image-tool.test.ts
index c11799660ff..a2771fb4215 100644
--- a/src/agents/tools/image-tool.test.ts
+++ b/src/agents/tools/image-tool.test.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import { withFetchPreconnect } from "../../test-utils/fetch-mock.js";
 import { createOpenClawCodingTools } from "../pi-tools.js";
 import { createHostSandboxFsBridge } from "../test-helpers/host-sandbox-fs-bridge.js";
 import { createUnsafeMountedSandbox } from "../test-helpers/unsafe-mounted-sandbox.js";
+import { makeZeroUsageSnapshot } from "../usage.js";
 import { __testing, createImageTool, resolveImageModelConfigForTool } from "./image-tool.js";
 
 async function writeAuthProfiles(agentDir: string, profiles: unknown) {
@@ -766,23 +767,6 @@ describe("image tool MiniMax VLM routing", () => {
 });
 
 describe("image tool response validation", () => {
-  function zeroUsage() {
-    return {
-      input: 0,
-      output: 0,
-      cacheRead: 0,
-      cacheWrite: 0,
-      totalTokens: 0,
-      cost: {
-        input: 0,
-        output: 0,
-        cacheRead: 0,
-        cacheWrite: 0,
-        total: 0,
-      },
-    };
-  }
-
   function createAssistantMessage(
     overrides: Partial<{
       api: string;
@@ -800,7 +784,7 @@ describe("image tool response validation", () => {
       model: "gpt-5-mini",
       stopReason: "stop",
       timestamp: Date.now(),
-      usage: zeroUsage(),
+      usage: makeZeroUsageSnapshot(),
       content: [] as unknown[],
       ...overrides,
     };
diff --git a/src/agents/tools/image-tool.ts b/src/agents/tools/image-tool.ts
index 55352eb373f..89a0da6d070 100644
--- a/src/agents/tools/image-tool.ts
+++ b/src/agents/tools/image-tool.ts
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
-import { type Api, type Context, complete, type Model } from "@mariozechner/pi-ai";
+import { type Context, complete } from "@mariozechner/pi-ai";
 import { Type } from "@sinclair/typebox";
 import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../../config/config.js";
 import { resolveUserPath } from "../../utils.js";
-import { getDefaultLocalRoots, loadWebMedia } from "../../web/media.js";
+import { loadWebMedia } from "../../web/media.js";
 import { minimaxUnderstandImage } from "../minimax-vlm.js";
 import {
   coerceImageAssistantText,
@@ -11,15 +11,20 @@ import {
   type ImageModelConfig,
   resolveProviderVisionModelFromConfig,
 } from "./image-tool.helpers.js";
+import {
+  applyImageModelConfigDefaults,
+  buildTextToolResult,
+  resolveMediaToolLocalRoots,
+  resolveModelFromRegistry,
+  resolveModelRuntimeApiKey,
+  resolvePromptAndModelOverride,
+} from "./media-tool-shared.js";
 import { hasAuthForProvider, resolveDefaultModelRef } from "./model-config.helpers.js";
 import {
   createSandboxBridgeReadFile,
   discoverAuthStorage,
   discoverModels,
   ensureOpenClawModelsJson,
-  getApiKeyForModel,
-  normalizeWorkspaceDir,
-  requireApiKey,
   resolveSandboxedBridgeMediaPath,
   runWithImageModelFallback,
   type AnyAgentTool,
@@ -202,18 +207,7 @@ async function runImagePrompt(params: {
   model: string;
   attempts: Array<{ provider: string; model: string; error: string }>;
 }> {
-  const effectiveCfg: OpenClawConfig | undefined = params.cfg
-    ? {
-        ...params.cfg,
-        agents: {
-          ...params.cfg.agents,
-          defaults: {
-            ...params.cfg.agents?.defaults,
-            imageModel: params.imageModelConfig,
-          },
-        },
-      }
-    : undefined;
+  const effectiveCfg = applyImageModelConfigDefaults(params.cfg, params.imageModelConfig);
 
   await ensureOpenClawModelsJson(effectiveCfg, params.agentDir);
   const authStorage = discoverAuthStorage(params.agentDir);
@@ -223,20 +217,16 @@ async function runImagePrompt(params: {
     cfg: effectiveCfg,
     modelOverride: params.modelOverride,
     run: async (provider, modelId) => {
-      const model = modelRegistry.find(provider, modelId) as Model<Api> | null;
-      if (!model) {
-        throw new Error(`Unknown model: ${provider}/${modelId}`);
-      }
+      const model = resolveModelFromRegistry({ modelRegistry, provider, modelId });
       if (!model.input?.includes("image")) {
         throw new Error(`Model does not support images: ${provider}/${modelId}`);
       }
-      const apiKeyInfo = await getApiKeyForModel({
+      const apiKey = await resolveModelRuntimeApiKey({
         model,
         cfg: effectiveCfg,
         agentDir: params.agentDir,
+        authStorage,
       });
-      const apiKey = requireApiKey(apiKeyInfo, model.provider);
-      authStorage.setRuntimeApiKey(model.provider, apiKey);
 
       // MiniMax VLM only supports a single image; use the first one.
       if (model.provider === "minimax") {
@@ -308,6 +298,7 @@ export function createImageTool(options?: {
     ? "Analyze one or more images with a vision model. Use image for a single path/URL, or images for multiple (up to 20). Only use this tool when images were NOT already provided in the user's message. Images mentioned in the prompt are automatically visible to you."
     : "Analyze one or more images with the configured image model (agents.defaults.imageModel). Use image for a single path/URL, or images for multiple (up to 20). Provide a prompt describing what to analyze.";
 
+<<<<<<< HEAD
   const localRoots = (() => {
     const workspaceDir = normalizeWorkspaceDir(options?.workspaceDir);
     if (options?.fsPolicy?.workspaceOnly) {
@@ -319,6 +310,18 @@ export function createImageTool(options?: {
     }
     return Array.from(new Set([...roots, workspaceDir]));
   })();
+||||||| parent of 4a741746c (refactor: dedupe agent and reply runtimes)
+  const localRoots = (() => {
+    const roots = getDefaultLocalRoots();
+    const workspaceDir = normalizeWorkspaceDir(options?.workspaceDir);
+    if (!workspaceDir) {
+      return roots;
+    }
+    return Array.from(new Set([...roots, workspaceDir]));
+  })();
+=======
+  const localRoots = resolveMediaToolLocalRoots(options?.workspaceDir);
+>>>>>>> 4a741746c (refactor: dedupe agent and reply runtimes)
 
   return {
     label: "Image",
@@ -383,12 +386,10 @@ export function createImageTool(options?: {
         };
       }
 
-      const promptRaw =
-        typeof record.prompt === "string" && record.prompt.trim()
-          ? record.prompt.trim()
-          : DEFAULT_PROMPT;
-      const modelOverride =
-        typeof record.model === "string" && record.model.trim() ? record.model.trim() : undefined;
+      const { prompt: promptRaw, modelOverride } = resolvePromptAndModelOverride(
+        record,
+        DEFAULT_PROMPT,
+      );
       const maxBytesMb = typeof record.maxBytesMb === "number" ? record.maxBytesMb : undefined;
       const maxBytes = pickMaxBytes(options?.config, maxBytesMb);
 
@@ -525,14 +526,7 @@ export function createImageTool(options?: {
               })),
             };
 
-      return {
-        content: [{ type: "text", text: result.text }],
-        details: {
-          model: `${result.provider}/${result.model}`,
-          ...imageDetails,
-          attempts: result.attempts,
-        },
-      };
+      return buildTextToolResult(result, imageDetails);
     },
   };
 }
diff --git a/src/agents/tools/media-tool-shared.ts b/src/agents/tools/media-tool-shared.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a869a9df9cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/tools/media-tool-shared.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,107 @@
+import { type Api, type Model } from "@mariozechner/pi-ai";
+import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../../config/config.js";
+import { getDefaultLocalRoots } from "../../web/media.js";
+import type { ImageModelConfig } from "./image-tool.helpers.js";
+import { getApiKeyForModel, normalizeWorkspaceDir, requireApiKey } from "./tool-runtime.helpers.js";
+
+type TextToolAttempt = {
+  provider: string;
+  model: string;
+  error: string;
+};
+
+type TextToolResult = {
+  text: string;
+  provider: string;
+  model: string;
+  attempts: TextToolAttempt[];
+};
+
+export function applyImageModelConfigDefaults(
+  cfg: OpenClawConfig | undefined,
+  imageModelConfig: ImageModelConfig,
+): OpenClawConfig | undefined {
+  if (!cfg) {
+    return undefined;
+  }
+  return {
+    ...cfg,
+    agents: {
+      ...cfg.agents,
+      defaults: {
+        ...cfg.agents?.defaults,
+        imageModel: imageModelConfig,
+      },
+    },
+  };
+}
+
+export function resolveMediaToolLocalRoots(workspaceDirRaw: string | undefined): string[] {
+  const roots = getDefaultLocalRoots();
+  const workspaceDir = normalizeWorkspaceDir(workspaceDirRaw);
+  if (!workspaceDir) {
+    return [...roots];
+  }
+  return Array.from(new Set([...roots, workspaceDir]));
+}
+
+export function resolvePromptAndModelOverride(
+  args: Record<string, unknown>,
+  defaultPrompt: string,
+): {
+  prompt: string;
+  modelOverride?: string;
+} {
+  const prompt =
+    typeof args.prompt === "string" && args.prompt.trim() ? args.prompt.trim() : defaultPrompt;
+  const modelOverride =
+    typeof args.model === "string" && args.model.trim() ? args.model.trim() : undefined;
+  return { prompt, modelOverride };
+}
+
+export function buildTextToolResult(
+  result: TextToolResult,
+  extraDetails: Record<string, unknown>,
+): {
+  content: Array<{ type: "text"; text: string }>;
+  details: Record<string, unknown>;
+} {
+  return {
+    content: [{ type: "text", text: result.text }],
+    details: {
+      model: `${result.provider}/${result.model}`,
+      ...extraDetails,
+      attempts: result.attempts,
+    },
+  };
+}
+
+export function resolveModelFromRegistry(params: {
+  modelRegistry: { find: (provider: string, modelId: string) => unknown };
+  provider: string;
+  modelId: string;
+}): Model<Api> {
+  const model = params.modelRegistry.find(params.provider, params.modelId) as Model<Api> | null;
+  if (!model) {
+    throw new Error(`Unknown model: ${params.provider}/${params.modelId}`);
+  }
+  return model;
+}
+
+export async function resolveModelRuntimeApiKey(params: {
+  model: Model<Api>;
+  cfg: OpenClawConfig | undefined;
+  agentDir: string;
+  authStorage: {
+    setRuntimeApiKey: (provider: string, apiKey: string) => void;
+  };
+}): Promise<string> {
+  const apiKeyInfo = await getApiKeyForModel({
+    model: params.model,
+    cfg: params.cfg,
+    agentDir: params.agentDir,
+  });
+  const apiKey = requireApiKey(apiKeyInfo, params.model.provider);
+  params.authStorage.setRuntimeApiKey(params.model.provider, apiKey);
+  return apiKey;
+}
diff --git a/src/agents/tools/pdf-tool.ts b/src/agents/tools/pdf-tool.ts
index 5df6a95cae1..34d1a548219 100644
--- a/src/agents/tools/pdf-tool.ts
+++ b/src/agents/tools/pdf-tool.ts
@@ -1,14 +1,22 @@
-import { type Api, type Context, complete, type Model } from "@mariozechner/pi-ai";
+import { type Context, complete } from "@mariozechner/pi-ai";
 import { Type } from "@sinclair/typebox";
 import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../../config/config.js";
 import { extractPdfContent, type PdfExtractedContent } from "../../media/pdf-extract.js";
 import { resolveUserPath } from "../../utils.js";
-import { getDefaultLocalRoots, loadWebMediaRaw } from "../../web/media.js";
+import { loadWebMediaRaw } from "../../web/media.js";
 import {
   coerceImageModelConfig,
   type ImageModelConfig,
   resolveProviderVisionModelFromConfig,
 } from "./image-tool.helpers.js";
+import {
+  applyImageModelConfigDefaults,
+  buildTextToolResult,
+  resolveMediaToolLocalRoots,
+  resolveModelFromRegistry,
+  resolveModelRuntimeApiKey,
+  resolvePromptAndModelOverride,
+} from "./media-tool-shared.js";
 import { hasAuthForProvider, resolveDefaultModelRef } from "./model-config.helpers.js";
 import { anthropicAnalyzePdf, geminiAnalyzePdf } from "./pdf-native-providers.js";
 import {
@@ -23,9 +31,6 @@ import {
   discoverAuthStorage,
   discoverModels,
   ensureOpenClawModelsJson,
-  getApiKeyForModel,
-  normalizeWorkspaceDir,
-  requireApiKey,
   resolveSandboxedBridgeMediaPath,
   runWithImageModelFallback,
   type AnyAgentTool,
@@ -176,18 +181,7 @@ async function runPdfPrompt(params: {
   native: boolean;
   attempts: Array<{ provider: string; model: string; error: string }>;
 }> {
-  const effectiveCfg: OpenClawConfig | undefined = params.cfg
-    ? {
-        ...params.cfg,
-        agents: {
-          ...params.cfg.agents,
-          defaults: {
-            ...params.cfg.agents?.defaults,
-            imageModel: params.pdfModelConfig,
-          },
-        },
-      }
-    : undefined;
+  const effectiveCfg = applyImageModelConfigDefaults(params.cfg, params.pdfModelConfig);
 
   await ensureOpenClawModelsJson(effectiveCfg, params.agentDir);
   const authStorage = discoverAuthStorage(params.agentDir);
@@ -205,18 +199,13 @@ async function runPdfPrompt(params: {
     cfg: effectiveCfg,
     modelOverride: params.modelOverride,
     run: async (provider, modelId) => {
-      const model = modelRegistry.find(provider, modelId) as Model<Api> | null;
-      if (!model) {
-        throw new Error(`Unknown model: ${provider}/${modelId}`);
-      }
-
-      const apiKeyInfo = await getApiKeyForModel({
+      const model = resolveModelFromRegistry({ modelRegistry, provider, modelId });
+      const apiKey = await resolveModelRuntimeApiKey({
         model,
         cfg: effectiveCfg,
         agentDir: params.agentDir,
+        authStorage,
       });
-      const apiKey = requireApiKey(apiKeyInfo, model.provider);
-      authStorage.setRuntimeApiKey(model.provider, apiKey);
 
       if (providerSupportsNativePdf(provider)) {
         if (params.pageNumbers && params.pageNumbers.length > 0) {
@@ -338,6 +327,7 @@ export function createPdfTool(options?: {
       ? Math.floor(maxPagesDefault)
       : DEFAULT_MAX_PAGES;
 
+<<<<<<< HEAD
   const localRoots = (() => {
     const workspaceDir = normalizeWorkspaceDir(options?.workspaceDir);
     if (options?.fsPolicy?.workspaceOnly) {
@@ -349,6 +339,18 @@ export function createPdfTool(options?: {
     }
     return Array.from(new Set([...roots, workspaceDir]));
   })();
+||||||| parent of 4a741746c (refactor: dedupe agent and reply runtimes)
+  const localRoots = (() => {
+    const roots = getDefaultLocalRoots();
+    const workspaceDir = normalizeWorkspaceDir(options?.workspaceDir);
+    if (!workspaceDir) {
+      return roots;
+    }
+    return Array.from(new Set([...roots, workspaceDir]));
+  })();
+=======
+  const localRoots = resolveMediaToolLocalRoots(options?.workspaceDir);
+>>>>>>> 4a741746c (refactor: dedupe agent and reply runtimes)
 
   const description =
     "Analyze one or more PDF documents with a model. Supports native PDF analysis for Anthropic and Google models, with text/image extraction fallback for other providers. Use pdf for a single path/URL, or pdfs for multiple (up to 10). Provide a prompt describing what to analyze.";
@@ -412,12 +414,10 @@ export function createPdfTool(options?: {
         };
       }
 
-      const promptRaw =
-        typeof record.prompt === "string" && record.prompt.trim()
-          ? record.prompt.trim()
-          : DEFAULT_PROMPT;
-      const modelOverride =
-        typeof record.model === "string" && record.model.trim() ? record.model.trim() : undefined;
+      const { prompt: promptRaw, modelOverride } = resolvePromptAndModelOverride(
+        record,
+        DEFAULT_PROMPT,
+      );
       const maxBytesMbRaw = typeof record.maxBytesMb === "number" ? record.maxBytesMb : undefined;
       const maxBytesMb =
         typeof maxBytesMbRaw === "number" && Number.isFinite(maxBytesMbRaw) && maxBytesMbRaw > 0
@@ -573,15 +573,7 @@ export function createPdfTool(options?: {
               })),
             };
 
-      return {
-        content: [{ type: "text", text: result.text }],
-        details: {
-          model: `${result.provider}/${result.model}`,
-          native: result.native,
-          ...pdfDetails,
-          attempts: result.attempts,
-        },
-      };
+      return buildTextToolResult(result, { native: result.native, ...pdfDetails });
     },
   };
 }
diff --git a/src/agents/tools/sessions-helpers.ts b/src/agents/tools/sessions-helpers.ts
index 6573b1e9cb5..7a244e32de0 100644
--- a/src/agents/tools/sessions-helpers.ts
+++ b/src/agents/tools/sessions-helpers.ts
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ export {
   resolveInternalSessionKey,
   resolveMainSessionAlias,
   resolveSessionReference,
+  resolveVisibleSessionReference,
   shouldResolveSessionIdInput,
   shouldVerifyRequesterSpawnedSessionVisibility,
 } from "./sessions-resolution.js";
diff --git a/src/agents/tools/sessions-history-tool.ts b/src/agents/tools/sessions-history-tool.ts
index 18d9576f0b2..3d5deeadcdb 100644
--- a/src/agents/tools/sessions-history-tool.ts
+++ b/src/agents/tools/sessions-history-tool.ts
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@ import { jsonResult, readStringParam } from "./common.js";
 import {
   createSessionVisibilityGuard,
   createAgentToAgentPolicy,
-  isResolvedSessionVisibleToRequester,
   resolveEffectiveSessionToolsVisibility,
   resolveSessionReference,
   resolveSandboxedSessionToolContext,
+  resolveVisibleSessionReference,
   stripToolMessages,
 } from "./sessions-helpers.js";
 
@@ -197,23 +197,21 @@ export function createSessionsHistoryTool(opts?: {
       if (!resolvedSession.ok) {
         return jsonResult({ status: resolvedSession.status, error: resolvedSession.error });
       }
-      // From here on, use the canonical key (sessionId inputs already resolved).
-      const resolvedKey = resolvedSession.key;
-      const displayKey = resolvedSession.displayKey;
-      const resolvedViaSessionId = resolvedSession.resolvedViaSessionId;
-
-      const visible = await isResolvedSessionVisibleToRequester({
+      const visibleSession = await resolveVisibleSessionReference({
+        resolvedSession,
         requesterSessionKey: effectiveRequesterKey,
-        targetSessionKey: resolvedKey,
         restrictToSpawned,
-        resolvedViaSessionId,
+        visibilitySessionKey: sessionKeyParam,
       });
-      if (!visible) {
+      if (!visibleSession.ok) {
         return jsonResult({
-          status: "forbidden",
-          error: `Session not visible from this sandboxed agent session: ${sessionKeyParam}`,
+          status: visibleSession.status,
+          error: visibleSession.error,
         });
       }
+      // From here on, use the canonical key (sessionId inputs already resolved).
+      const resolvedKey = visibleSession.key;
+      const displayKey = visibleSession.displayKey;
 
       const a2aPolicy = createAgentToAgentPolicy(cfg);
       const visibility = resolveEffectiveSessionToolsVisibility({
diff --git a/src/agents/tools/sessions-resolution.ts b/src/agents/tools/sessions-resolution.ts
index f350adb1830..7eb730da09c 100644
--- a/src/agents/tools/sessions-resolution.ts
+++ b/src/agents/tools/sessions-resolution.ts
@@ -159,6 +159,19 @@ export type SessionReferenceResolution =
     }
   | { ok: false; status: "error" | "forbidden"; error: string };
 
+export type VisibleSessionReferenceResolution =
+  | {
+      ok: true;
+      key: string;
+      displayKey: string;
+    }
+  | {
+      ok: false;
+      status: "forbidden";
+      error: string;
+      displayKey: string;
+    };
+
 async function resolveSessionKeyFromSessionId(params: {
   sessionId: string;
   alias: string;
@@ -289,6 +302,31 @@ export async function resolveSessionReference(params: {
   return { ok: true, key: resolvedKey, displayKey, resolvedViaSessionId: false };
 }
 
+export async function resolveVisibleSessionReference(params: {
+  resolvedSession: Extract<SessionReferenceResolution, { ok: true }>;
+  requesterSessionKey: string;
+  restrictToSpawned: boolean;
+  visibilitySessionKey: string;
+}): Promise<VisibleSessionReferenceResolution> {
+  const resolvedKey = params.resolvedSession.key;
+  const displayKey = params.resolvedSession.displayKey;
+  const visible = await isResolvedSessionVisibleToRequester({
+    requesterSessionKey: params.requesterSessionKey,
+    targetSessionKey: resolvedKey,
+    restrictToSpawned: params.restrictToSpawned,
+    resolvedViaSessionId: params.resolvedSession.resolvedViaSessionId,
+  });
+  if (!visible) {
+    return {
+      ok: false,
+      status: "forbidden",
+      error: `Session not visible from this sandboxed agent session: ${params.visibilitySessionKey}`,
+      displayKey,
+    };
+  }
+  return { ok: true, key: resolvedKey, displayKey };
+}
+
 export function normalizeOptionalKey(value?: string) {
   return normalizeKey(value);
 }
diff --git a/src/agents/tools/sessions-send-tool.ts b/src/agents/tools/sessions-send-tool.ts
index bb1693c8469..82eff0adf7a 100644
--- a/src/agents/tools/sessions-send-tool.ts
+++ b/src/agents/tools/sessions-send-tool.ts
@@ -15,10 +15,10 @@ import {
   createSessionVisibilityGuard,
   createAgentToAgentPolicy,
   extractAssistantText,
-  isResolvedSessionVisibleToRequester,
   resolveEffectiveSessionToolsVisibility,
   resolveSessionReference,
   resolveSandboxedSessionToolContext,
+  resolveVisibleSessionReference,
   stripToolMessages,
 } from "./sessions-helpers.js";
 import { buildAgentToAgentMessageContext, resolvePingPongTurns } from "./sessions-send-helpers.js";
@@ -171,25 +171,23 @@ export function createSessionsSendTool(opts?: {
           error: resolvedSession.error,
         });
       }
-      // Normalize sessionKey/sessionId input into a canonical session key.
-      const resolvedKey = resolvedSession.key;
-      const displayKey = resolvedSession.displayKey;
-      const resolvedViaSessionId = resolvedSession.resolvedViaSessionId;
-
-      const visible = await isResolvedSessionVisibleToRequester({
+      const visibleSession = await resolveVisibleSessionReference({
+        resolvedSession,
         requesterSessionKey: effectiveRequesterKey,
-        targetSessionKey: resolvedKey,
         restrictToSpawned,
-        resolvedViaSessionId,
+        visibilitySessionKey: sessionKey,
       });
-      if (!visible) {
+      if (!visibleSession.ok) {
         return jsonResult({
           runId: crypto.randomUUID(),
-          status: "forbidden",
-          error: `Session not visible from this sandboxed agent session: ${sessionKey}`,
-          sessionKey: displayKey,
+          status: visibleSession.status,
+          error: visibleSession.error,
+          sessionKey: visibleSession.displayKey,
         });
       }
+      // Normalize sessionKey/sessionId input into a canonical session key.
+      const resolvedKey = visibleSession.key;
+      const displayKey = visibleSession.displayKey;
       const timeoutSeconds =
         typeof params.timeoutSeconds === "number" && Number.isFinite(params.timeoutSeconds)
           ? Math.max(0, Math.floor(params.timeoutSeconds))
diff --git a/src/auto-reply/reply/acp-projector.test.ts b/src/auto-reply/reply/acp-projector.test.ts
index 57882b3b755..c3dc0c259ff 100644
--- a/src/auto-reply/reply/acp-projector.test.ts
+++ b/src/auto-reply/reply/acp-projector.test.ts
@@ -33,6 +33,107 @@ function expectToolCallSummary(delivery: Delivery | undefined) {
   expect(delivery?.text).toContain("Tool Call");
 }
 
+function createFinalOnlyStatusToolHarness() {
+  return createProjectorHarness({
+    acp: {
+      enabled: true,
+      stream: {
+        coalesceIdleMs: 0,
+        maxChunkChars: 512,
+        deliveryMode: "final_only",
+        tagVisibility: {
+          available_commands_update: true,
+          tool_call: true,
+        },
+      },
+    },
+  });
+}
+
+function createLiveToolLifecycleHarness(params?: {
+  coalesceIdleMs?: number;
+  maxChunkChars?: number;
+  maxSessionUpdateChars?: number;
+  repeatSuppression?: boolean;
+}) {
+  return createProjectorHarness({
+    acp: {
+      enabled: true,
+      stream: {
+        deliveryMode: "live",
+        ...params,
+        tagVisibility: {
+          tool_call: true,
+          tool_call_update: true,
+        },
+      },
+    },
+  });
+}
+
+function createLiveStatusAndToolLifecycleHarness(params?: {
+  coalesceIdleMs?: number;
+  maxChunkChars?: number;
+  repeatSuppression?: boolean;
+}) {
+  return createProjectorHarness({
+    acp: {
+      enabled: true,
+      stream: {
+        deliveryMode: "live",
+        ...params,
+        tagVisibility: {
+          available_commands_update: true,
+          tool_call: true,
+          tool_call_update: true,
+        },
+      },
+    },
+  });
+}
+
+async function runHiddenBoundaryCase(params: {
+  cfgOverrides?: Parameters<typeof createCfg>[0];
+  toolCallId: string;
+  includeNonTerminalUpdate?: boolean;
+  firstText?: string;
+  secondText?: string;
+  expectedText: string;
+}) {
+  const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness(params.cfgOverrides);
+  await projector.onEvent({
+    type: "text_delta",
+    text: params.firstText ?? "fallback.",
+    tag: "agent_message_chunk",
+  });
+  await projector.onEvent({
+    type: "tool_call",
+    tag: "tool_call",
+    toolCallId: params.toolCallId,
+    status: "in_progress",
+    title: "Run test",
+    text: "Run test (in_progress)",
+  });
+  if (params.includeNonTerminalUpdate) {
+    await projector.onEvent({
+      type: "tool_call",
+      tag: "tool_call_update",
+      toolCallId: params.toolCallId,
+      status: "in_progress",
+      title: "Run test",
+      text: "Run test (in_progress)",
+    });
+  }
+  await projector.onEvent({
+    type: "text_delta",
+    text: params.secondText ?? "I don't",
+    tag: "agent_message_chunk",
+  });
+  await projector.flush(true);
+
+  expect(combinedBlockText(deliveries)).toBe(params.expectedText);
+}
+
 describe("createAcpReplyProjector", () => {
   it("coalesces text deltas into bounded block chunks", async () => {
     const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness();
@@ -174,20 +275,7 @@ describe("createAcpReplyProjector", () => {
   });
 
   it("supports deliveryMode=final_only by buffering all projected output until done", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          coalesceIdleMs: 0,
-          maxChunkChars: 512,
-          deliveryMode: "final_only",
-          tagVisibility: {
-            available_commands_update: true,
-            tool_call: true,
-          },
-        },
-      },
-    });
+    const { deliveries, projector } = createFinalOnlyStatusToolHarness();
 
     await projector.onEvent({
       type: "text_delta",
@@ -225,20 +313,7 @@ describe("createAcpReplyProjector", () => {
   });
 
   it("flushes buffered status/tool output on error in deliveryMode=final_only", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          coalesceIdleMs: 0,
-          maxChunkChars: 512,
-          deliveryMode: "final_only",
-          tagVisibility: {
-            available_commands_update: true,
-            tool_call: true,
-          },
-        },
-      },
-    });
+    const { deliveries, projector } = createFinalOnlyStatusToolHarness();
 
     await projector.onEvent({
       type: "status",
@@ -329,18 +404,7 @@ describe("createAcpReplyProjector", () => {
   });
 
   it("dedupes repeated tool lifecycle updates when repeatSuppression is enabled", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          deliveryMode: "live",
-          tagVisibility: {
-            tool_call: true,
-            tool_call_update: true,
-          },
-        },
-      },
-    });
+    const { deliveries, projector } = createLiveToolLifecycleHarness();
 
     await projector.onEvent({
       type: "tool_call",
@@ -381,18 +445,8 @@ describe("createAcpReplyProjector", () => {
   });
 
   it("keeps terminal tool updates even when rendered summaries are truncated", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          deliveryMode: "live",
-          maxSessionUpdateChars: 48,
-          tagVisibility: {
-            tool_call: true,
-            tool_call_update: true,
-          },
-        },
-      },
+    const { deliveries, projector } = createLiveToolLifecycleHarness({
+      maxSessionUpdateChars: 48,
     });
 
     const longTitle =
@@ -420,18 +474,7 @@ describe("createAcpReplyProjector", () => {
   });
 
   it("renders fallback tool labels without leaking call ids as primary label", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          deliveryMode: "live",
-          tagVisibility: {
-            tool_call: true,
-            tool_call_update: true,
-          },
-        },
-      },
-    });
+    const { deliveries, projector } = createLiveToolLifecycleHarness();
 
     await projector.onEvent({
       type: "tool_call",
@@ -446,21 +489,10 @@ describe("createAcpReplyProjector", () => {
   });
 
   it("allows repeated status/tool summaries when repeatSuppression is disabled", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          coalesceIdleMs: 0,
-          maxChunkChars: 256,
-          deliveryMode: "live",
-          repeatSuppression: false,
-          tagVisibility: {
-            available_commands_update: true,
-            tool_call: true,
-            tool_call_update: true,
-          },
-        },
-      },
+    const { deliveries, projector } = createLiveStatusAndToolLifecycleHarness({
+      coalesceIdleMs: 0,
+      maxChunkChars: 256,
+      repeatSuppression: false,
     });
 
     await projector.onEvent({
@@ -616,156 +648,96 @@ describe("createAcpReplyProjector", () => {
   });
 
   it("inserts a space boundary before visible text after hidden tool updates by default", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          coalesceIdleMs: 0,
-          maxChunkChars: 256,
-          deliveryMode: "live",
-        },
-      },
-    });
-
-    await projector.onEvent({ type: "text_delta", text: "fallback.", tag: "agent_message_chunk" });
-    await projector.onEvent({
-      type: "tool_call",
-      tag: "tool_call",
-      toolCallId: "call_hidden_1",
-      status: "in_progress",
-      title: "Run test",
-      text: "Run test (in_progress)",
-    });
-    await projector.onEvent({ type: "text_delta", text: "I don't", tag: "agent_message_chunk" });
-    await projector.flush(true);
-
-    expect(combinedBlockText(deliveries)).toBe("fallback. I don't");
-  });
-
-  it("preserves hidden boundary across nonterminal hidden tool updates", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          coalesceIdleMs: 0,
-          maxChunkChars: 256,
-          deliveryMode: "live",
-          tagVisibility: {
-            tool_call: false,
-            tool_call_update: false,
+    await runHiddenBoundaryCase({
+      cfgOverrides: {
+        acp: {
+          enabled: true,
+          stream: {
+            coalesceIdleMs: 0,
+            maxChunkChars: 256,
+            deliveryMode: "live",
           },
         },
       },
+      toolCallId: "call_hidden_1",
+      expectedText: "fallback. I don't",
     });
+  });
 
-    await projector.onEvent({ type: "text_delta", text: "fallback.", tag: "agent_message_chunk" });
-    await projector.onEvent({
-      type: "tool_call",
-      tag: "tool_call",
+  it("preserves hidden boundary across nonterminal hidden tool updates", async () => {
+    await runHiddenBoundaryCase({
+      cfgOverrides: {
+        acp: {
+          enabled: true,
+          stream: {
+            coalesceIdleMs: 0,
+            maxChunkChars: 256,
+            deliveryMode: "live",
+            tagVisibility: {
+              tool_call: false,
+              tool_call_update: false,
+            },
+          },
+        },
+      },
       toolCallId: "hidden_boundary_1",
-      status: "in_progress",
-      title: "Run test",
-      text: "Run test (in_progress)",
+      includeNonTerminalUpdate: true,
+      expectedText: "fallback. I don't",
     });
-    await projector.onEvent({
-      type: "tool_call",
-      tag: "tool_call_update",
-      toolCallId: "hidden_boundary_1",
-      status: "in_progress",
-      title: "Run test",
-      text: "Run test (in_progress)",
-    });
-    await projector.onEvent({ type: "text_delta", text: "I don't", tag: "agent_message_chunk" });
-    await projector.flush(true);
-
-    expect(combinedBlockText(deliveries)).toBe("fallback. I don't");
   });
 
   it("supports hiddenBoundarySeparator=space", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          coalesceIdleMs: 0,
-          maxChunkChars: 256,
-          deliveryMode: "live",
-          hiddenBoundarySeparator: "space",
+    await runHiddenBoundaryCase({
+      cfgOverrides: {
+        acp: {
+          enabled: true,
+          stream: {
+            coalesceIdleMs: 0,
+            maxChunkChars: 256,
+            deliveryMode: "live",
+            hiddenBoundarySeparator: "space",
+          },
         },
       },
-    });
-
-    await projector.onEvent({ type: "text_delta", text: "fallback.", tag: "agent_message_chunk" });
-    await projector.onEvent({
-      type: "tool_call",
-      tag: "tool_call",
       toolCallId: "call_hidden_2",
-      status: "in_progress",
-      title: "Run test",
-      text: "Run test (in_progress)",
+      expectedText: "fallback. I don't",
     });
-    await projector.onEvent({ type: "text_delta", text: "I don't", tag: "agent_message_chunk" });
-    await projector.flush(true);
-
-    expect(combinedBlockText(deliveries)).toBe("fallback. I don't");
   });
 
   it("supports hiddenBoundarySeparator=none", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          coalesceIdleMs: 0,
-          maxChunkChars: 256,
-          deliveryMode: "live",
-          hiddenBoundarySeparator: "none",
+    await runHiddenBoundaryCase({
+      cfgOverrides: {
+        acp: {
+          enabled: true,
+          stream: {
+            coalesceIdleMs: 0,
+            maxChunkChars: 256,
+            deliveryMode: "live",
+            hiddenBoundarySeparator: "none",
+          },
         },
       },
-    });
-
-    await projector.onEvent({ type: "text_delta", text: "fallback.", tag: "agent_message_chunk" });
-    await projector.onEvent({
-      type: "tool_call",
-      tag: "tool_call",
       toolCallId: "call_hidden_3",
-      status: "in_progress",
-      title: "Run test",
-      text: "Run test (in_progress)",
+      expectedText: "fallback.I don't",
     });
-    await projector.onEvent({ type: "text_delta", text: "I don't", tag: "agent_message_chunk" });
-    await projector.flush(true);
-
-    expect(combinedBlockText(deliveries)).toBe("fallback.I don't");
   });
 
   it("does not duplicate newlines when previous visible text already ends with newline", async () => {
-    const { deliveries, projector } = createProjectorHarness({
-      acp: {
-        enabled: true,
-        stream: {
-          coalesceIdleMs: 0,
-          maxChunkChars: 256,
-          deliveryMode: "live",
+    await runHiddenBoundaryCase({
+      cfgOverrides: {
+        acp: {
+          enabled: true,
+          stream: {
+            coalesceIdleMs: 0,
+            maxChunkChars: 256,
+            deliveryMode: "live",
+          },
         },
       },
-    });
-
-    await projector.onEvent({
-      type: "text_delta",
-      text: "fallback.\n",
-      tag: "agent_message_chunk",
-    });
-    await projector.onEvent({
-      type: "tool_call",
-      tag: "tool_call",
       toolCallId: "call_hidden_4",
-      status: "in_progress",
-      title: "Run test",
-      text: "Run test (in_progress)",
+      firstText: "fallback.\n",
+      expectedText: "fallback.\nI don't",
     });
-    await projector.onEvent({ type: "text_delta", text: "I don't", tag: "agent_message_chunk" });
-    await projector.flush(true);
-
-    expect(combinedBlockText(deliveries)).toBe("fallback.\nI don't");
   });
 
   it("does not insert boundary separator for hidden non-tool status updates", async () => {
diff --git a/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-context-report.ts b/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-context-report.ts
index bf8b5f694b9..fd6df7d70a1 100644
--- a/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-context-report.ts
+++ b/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-context-report.ts
@@ -181,6 +181,20 @@ export async function buildContextReply(params: HandleCommandsParams): Promise<R
     session.totalTokens != null
       ? `Session tokens (cached): ${formatInt(session.totalTokens)} total / ctx=${session.contextTokens ?? "?"}`
       : `Session tokens (cached): unknown / ctx=${session.contextTokens ?? "?"}`;
+  const sharedContextLines = [
+    `Workspace: ${workspaceLabel}`,
+    `Bootstrap max/file: ${bootstrapMaxLabel}`,
+    `Bootstrap max/total: ${bootstrapTotalLabel}`,
+    sandboxLine,
+    systemPromptLine,
+    ...(bootstrapWarningLines.length ? ["", ...bootstrapWarningLines] : []),
+    "",
+    "Injected workspace files:",
+    ...fileLines,
+    "",
+    skillsLine,
+    skillsNamesLine,
+  ];
 
   if (sub === "detail" || sub === "deep") {
     const perSkill = formatListTop(
@@ -204,18 +218,7 @@ export async function buildContextReply(params: HandleCommandsParams): Promise<R
     return {
       text: [
         "🧠 Context breakdown (detailed)",
-        `Workspace: ${workspaceLabel}`,
-        `Bootstrap max/file: ${bootstrapMaxLabel}`,
-        `Bootstrap max/total: ${bootstrapTotalLabel}`,
-        sandboxLine,
-        systemPromptLine,
-        ...(bootstrapWarningLines.length ? ["", ...bootstrapWarningLines] : []),
-        "",
-        "Injected workspace files:",
-        ...fileLines,
-        "",
-        skillsLine,
-        skillsNamesLine,
+        ...sharedContextLines,
         ...(perSkill.lines.length ? ["Top skills (prompt entry size):", ...perSkill.lines] : []),
         ...(perSkill.omitted ? [`… (+${perSkill.omitted} more skills)`] : []),
         "",
@@ -243,18 +246,7 @@ export async function buildContextReply(params: HandleCommandsParams): Promise<R
   return {
     text: [
       "🧠 Context breakdown",
-      `Workspace: ${workspaceLabel}`,
-      `Bootstrap max/file: ${bootstrapMaxLabel}`,
-      `Bootstrap max/total: ${bootstrapTotalLabel}`,
-      sandboxLine,
-      systemPromptLine,
-      ...(bootstrapWarningLines.length ? ["", ...bootstrapWarningLines] : []),
-      "",
-      "Injected workspace files:",
-      ...fileLines,
-      "",
-      skillsLine,
-      skillsNamesLine,
+      ...sharedContextLines,
       toolListLine,
       toolSchemaLine,
       toolsNamesLine,
diff --git a/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-session.ts b/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-session.ts
index 70bea0f2944..30be871426a 100644
--- a/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-session.ts
+++ b/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-session.ts
@@ -20,30 +20,13 @@ import { normalizeUsageDisplay, resolveResponseUsageMode } from "../thinking.js"
 import { handleAbortTrigger, handleStopCommand } from "./commands-session-abort.js";
 import { persistSessionEntry } from "./commands-session-store.js";
 import type { CommandHandler } from "./commands-types.js";
+import { isDiscordSurface, resolveDiscordAccountId } from "./discord-context.js";
 
 const SESSION_COMMAND_PREFIX = "/session";
 const SESSION_DURATION_OFF_VALUES = new Set(["off", "disable", "disabled", "none", "0"]);
 const SESSION_ACTION_IDLE = "idle";
 const SESSION_ACTION_MAX_AGE = "max-age";
 
-function isDiscordSurface(params: Parameters<CommandHandler>[0]): boolean {
-  const channel =
-    params.ctx.OriginatingChannel ??
-    params.command.channel ??
-    params.ctx.Surface ??
-    params.ctx.Provider;
-  return (
-    String(channel ?? "")
-      .trim()
-      .toLowerCase() === "discord"
-  );
-}
-
-function resolveDiscordAccountId(params: Parameters<CommandHandler>[0]): string {
-  const accountId = typeof params.ctx.AccountId === "string" ? params.ctx.AccountId.trim() : "";
-  return accountId || "default";
-}
-
 function resolveSessionCommandUsage() {
   return "Usage: /session idle <duration|off> | /session max-age <duration|off> (example: /session idle 24h)";
 }
diff --git a/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-subagents/shared.ts b/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-subagents/shared.ts
index 0d2b23a19b6..65149c0e55e 100644
--- a/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-subagents/shared.ts
+++ b/src/auto-reply/reply/commands-subagents/shared.ts
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ import {
   truncateLine,
 } from "../../../shared/subagents-format.js";
 import type { CommandHandler, CommandHandlerResult } from "../commands-types.js";
+import { isDiscordSurface, resolveDiscordAccountId } from "../discord-context.js";
 import {
   formatRunLabel,
   formatRunStatus,
@@ -30,6 +31,7 @@ import {
 } from "../subagents-utils.js";
 
 export { extractAssistantText, stripToolMessages };
+export { isDiscordSurface, resolveDiscordAccountId };
 
 export const COMMAND = "/subagents";
 export const COMMAND_KILL = "/kill";
@@ -267,24 +269,6 @@ export type FocusTargetResolution = {
   label?: string;
 };
 
-export function isDiscordSurface(params: SubagentsCommandParams): boolean {
-  const channel =
-    params.ctx.OriginatingChannel ??
-    params.command.channel ??
-    params.ctx.Surface ??
-    params.ctx.Provider;
-  return (
-    String(channel ?? "")
-      .trim()
-      .toLowerCase() === "discord"
-  );
-}
-
-export function resolveDiscordAccountId(params: SubagentsCommandParams): string {
-  const accountId = typeof params.ctx.AccountId === "string" ? params.ctx.AccountId.trim() : "";
-  return accountId || "default";
-}
-
 export function resolveDiscordChannelIdForFocus(
   params: SubagentsCommandParams,
 ): string | undefined {
diff --git a/src/auto-reply/reply/discord-context.ts b/src/auto-reply/reply/discord-context.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2eb810d5e1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/auto-reply/reply/discord-context.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+type DiscordSurfaceParams = {
+  ctx: {
+    OriginatingChannel?: string;
+    Surface?: string;
+    Provider?: string;
+    AccountId?: string;
+  };
+  command: {
+    channel?: string;
+  };
+};
+
+type DiscordAccountParams = {
+  ctx: {
+    AccountId?: string;
+  };
+};
+
+export function isDiscordSurface(params: DiscordSurfaceParams): boolean {
+  const channel =
+    params.ctx.OriginatingChannel ??
+    params.command.channel ??
+    params.ctx.Surface ??
+    params.ctx.Provider;
+  return (
+    String(channel ?? "")
+      .trim()
+      .toLowerCase() === "discord"
+  );
+}
+
+export function resolveDiscordAccountId(params: DiscordAccountParams): string {
+  const accountId = typeof params.ctx.AccountId === "string" ? params.ctx.AccountId.trim() : "";
+  return accountId || "default";
+}
diff --git a/src/auto-reply/reply/model-selection.test.ts b/src/auto-reply/reply/model-selection.test.ts
index 493adec0515..5b90b34d4d5 100644
--- a/src/auto-reply/reply/model-selection.test.ts
+++ b/src/auto-reply/reply/model-selection.test.ts
@@ -68,6 +68,28 @@ describe("createModelSelectionState parent inheritance", () => {
     });
   }
 
+  async function resolveStateWithParent(params: {
+    cfg: OpenClawConfig;
+    parentKey: string;
+    sessionKey: string;
+    parentEntry: ReturnType<typeof makeEntry>;
+    sessionEntry?: ReturnType<typeof makeEntry>;
+    parentSessionKey?: string;
+  }) {
+    const sessionEntry = params.sessionEntry ?? makeEntry();
+    const sessionStore = {
+      [params.parentKey]: params.parentEntry,
+      [params.sessionKey]: sessionEntry,
+    };
+    return resolveState({
+      cfg: params.cfg,
+      sessionEntry,
+      sessionStore,
+      sessionKey: params.sessionKey,
+      parentSessionKey: params.parentSessionKey,
+    });
+  }
+
   it("inherits parent override from explicit parentSessionKey", async () => {
     const cfg = {} as OpenClawConfig;
     const parentKey = "agent:main:discord:channel:c1";
@@ -76,17 +98,11 @@ describe("createModelSelectionState parent inheritance", () => {
       providerOverride: "openai",
       modelOverride: "gpt-4o",
     });
-    const sessionEntry = makeEntry();
-    const sessionStore = {
-      [parentKey]: parentEntry,
-      [sessionKey]: sessionEntry,
-    };
-
-    const state = await resolveState({
+    const state = await resolveStateWithParent({
       cfg,
-      sessionEntry,
-      sessionStore,
+      parentKey,
       sessionKey,
+      parentEntry,
       parentSessionKey: parentKey,
     });
 
@@ -102,17 +118,11 @@ describe("createModelSelectionState parent inheritance", () => {
       providerOverride: "openai",
       modelOverride: "gpt-4o",
     });
-    const sessionEntry = makeEntry();
-    const sessionStore = {
-      [parentKey]: parentEntry,
-      [sessionKey]: sessionEntry,
-    };
-
-    const state = await resolveState({
+    const state = await resolveStateWithParent({
       cfg,
-      sessionEntry,
-      sessionStore,
+      parentKey,
       sessionKey,
+      parentEntry,
     });
 
     expect(state.provider).toBe("openai");
@@ -131,15 +141,11 @@ describe("createModelSelectionState parent inheritance", () => {
       providerOverride: "anthropic",
       modelOverride: "claude-opus-4-5",
     });
-    const sessionStore = {
-      [parentKey]: parentEntry,
-      [sessionKey]: sessionEntry,
-    };
-
-    const state = await resolveState({
+    const state = await resolveStateWithParent({
       cfg,
+      parentKey,
+      parentEntry,
       sessionEntry,
-      sessionStore,
       sessionKey,
     });
 
@@ -163,17 +169,11 @@ describe("createModelSelectionState parent inheritance", () => {
       providerOverride: "anthropic",
       modelOverride: "claude-opus-4-5",
     });
-    const sessionEntry = makeEntry();
-    const sessionStore = {
-      [parentKey]: parentEntry,
-      [sessionKey]: sessionEntry,
-    };
-
-    const state = await resolveState({
+    const state = await resolveStateWithParent({
       cfg,
-      sessionEntry,
-      sessionStore,
+      parentKey,
       sessionKey,
+      parentEntry,
     });
 
     expect(state.provider).toBe(defaultProvider);
diff --git a/src/browser/cdp-proxy-bypass.test.ts b/src/browser/cdp-proxy-bypass.test.ts
index 1840005392e..138853eb0d5 100644
--- a/src/browser/cdp-proxy-bypass.test.ts
+++ b/src/browser/cdp-proxy-bypass.test.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,37 @@ import {
   withNoProxyForLocalhost,
 } from "./cdp-proxy-bypass.js";
 
+const delay = (ms: number) => new Promise((resolve) => setTimeout(resolve, ms));
+
+async function withIsolatedNoProxyEnv(fn: () => Promise<void>) {
+  const origNoProxy = process.env.NO_PROXY;
+  const origNoProxyLower = process.env.no_proxy;
+  const origHttpProxy = process.env.HTTP_PROXY;
+  delete process.env.NO_PROXY;
+  delete process.env.no_proxy;
+  process.env.HTTP_PROXY = "http://proxy:8080";
+
+  try {
+    await fn();
+  } finally {
+    if (origHttpProxy !== undefined) {
+      process.env.HTTP_PROXY = origHttpProxy;
+    } else {
+      delete process.env.HTTP_PROXY;
+    }
+    if (origNoProxy !== undefined) {
+      process.env.NO_PROXY = origNoProxy;
+    } else {
+      delete process.env.NO_PROXY;
+    }
+    if (origNoProxyLower !== undefined) {
+      process.env.no_proxy = origNoProxyLower;
+    } else {
+      delete process.env.no_proxy;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
 describe("cdp-proxy-bypass", () => {
   describe("getDirectAgentForCdp", () => {
     it("returns http.Agent for http://localhost URLs", () => {
@@ -170,17 +201,10 @@ describe("cdp-proxy-bypass", () => {
 
 describe("withNoProxyForLocalhost concurrency", () => {
   it("does not leak NO_PROXY when called concurrently", async () => {
-    const origNoProxy = process.env.NO_PROXY;
-    const origNoProxyLower = process.env.no_proxy;
-    delete process.env.NO_PROXY;
-    delete process.env.no_proxy;
-    process.env.HTTP_PROXY = "http://proxy:8080";
-
-    try {
+    await withIsolatedNoProxyEnv(async () => {
       const { withNoProxyForLocalhost } = await import("./cdp-proxy-bypass.js");
 
       // Simulate concurrent calls
-      const delay = (ms: number) => new Promise((r) => setTimeout(r, ms));
       const callA = withNoProxyForLocalhost(async () => {
         // While A is running, NO_PROXY should be set
         expect(process.env.NO_PROXY).toContain("localhost");
@@ -198,35 +222,15 @@ describe("withNoProxyForLocalhost concurrency", () => {
       // After both complete, NO_PROXY should be restored (deleted)
       expect(process.env.NO_PROXY).toBeUndefined();
       expect(process.env.no_proxy).toBeUndefined();
-    } finally {
-      delete process.env.HTTP_PROXY;
-      if (origNoProxy !== undefined) {
-        process.env.NO_PROXY = origNoProxy;
-      } else {
-        delete process.env.NO_PROXY;
-      }
-      if (origNoProxyLower !== undefined) {
-        process.env.no_proxy = origNoProxyLower;
-      } else {
-        delete process.env.no_proxy;
-      }
-    }
+    });
   });
 });
 
 describe("withNoProxyForLocalhost reverse exit order", () => {
   it("restores NO_PROXY when first caller exits before second", async () => {
-    const origNoProxy = process.env.NO_PROXY;
-    const origNoProxyLower = process.env.no_proxy;
-    delete process.env.NO_PROXY;
-    delete process.env.no_proxy;
-    process.env.HTTP_PROXY = "http://proxy:8080";
-
-    try {
+    await withIsolatedNoProxyEnv(async () => {
       const { withNoProxyForLocalhost } = await import("./cdp-proxy-bypass.js");
 
-      const delay = (ms: number) => new Promise((r) => setTimeout(r, ms));
-
       // Call A enters first, exits first (short task)
       // Call B enters second, exits last (long task)
       const callA = withNoProxyForLocalhost(async () => {
@@ -243,19 +247,7 @@ describe("withNoProxyForLocalhost reverse exit order", () => {
       // After both complete, NO_PROXY must be cleaned up
       expect(process.env.NO_PROXY).toBeUndefined();
       expect(process.env.no_proxy).toBeUndefined();
-    } finally {
-      delete process.env.HTTP_PROXY;
-      if (origNoProxy !== undefined) {
-        process.env.NO_PROXY = origNoProxy;
-      } else {
-        delete process.env.NO_PROXY;
-      }
-      if (origNoProxyLower !== undefined) {
-        process.env.no_proxy = origNoProxyLower;
-      } else {
-        delete process.env.no_proxy;
-      }
-    }
+    });
   });
 });
 
diff --git a/src/browser/server-context.ensure-browser-available.waits-for-cdp-ready.test.ts b/src/browser/server-context.ensure-browser-available.waits-for-cdp-ready.test.ts
index eb93eb00d64..f475d84d00b 100644
--- a/src/browser/server-context.ensure-browser-available.waits-for-cdp-ready.test.ts
+++ b/src/browser/server-context.ensure-browser-available.waits-for-cdp-ready.test.ts
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ vi.mock("./chrome.js", () => ({
 }));
 
 import * as chromeModule from "./chrome.js";
+import type { RunningChrome } from "./chrome.js";
 import type { BrowserServerState } from "./server-context.js";
 import { createBrowserRouteContext } from "./server-context.js";
 
@@ -47,6 +48,21 @@ function makeBrowserState(): BrowserServerState {
   };
 }
 
+function mockLaunchedChrome(
+  launchOpenClawChrome: { mockResolvedValue: (value: RunningChrome) => unknown },
+  pid: number,
+) {
+  const proc = new EventEmitter() as unknown as ChildProcessWithoutNullStreams;
+  launchOpenClawChrome.mockResolvedValue({
+    pid,
+    exe: { kind: "chromium", path: "/usr/bin/chromium" },
+    userDataDir: "/tmp/openclaw-test",
+    cdpPort: 18800,
+    startedAt: Date.now(),
+    proc,
+  });
+}
+
 afterEach(() => {
   vi.useRealTimers();
   vi.clearAllMocks();
@@ -64,16 +80,7 @@ describe("browser server-context ensureBrowserAvailable", () => {
 
     isChromeReachable.mockResolvedValue(false);
     isChromeCdpReady.mockResolvedValueOnce(false).mockResolvedValue(true);
-
-    const proc = new EventEmitter() as unknown as ChildProcessWithoutNullStreams;
-    launchOpenClawChrome.mockResolvedValue({
-      pid: 123,
-      exe: { kind: "chromium", path: "/usr/bin/chromium" },
-      userDataDir: "/tmp/openclaw-test",
-      cdpPort: 18800,
-      startedAt: Date.now(),
-      proc,
-    });
+    mockLaunchedChrome(launchOpenClawChrome, 123);
 
     const state = makeBrowserState();
     const ctx = createBrowserRouteContext({ getState: () => state });
@@ -98,16 +105,7 @@ describe("browser server-context ensureBrowserAvailable", () => {
 
     isChromeReachable.mockResolvedValue(false);
     isChromeCdpReady.mockResolvedValue(false);
-
-    const proc = new EventEmitter() as unknown as ChildProcessWithoutNullStreams;
-    launchOpenClawChrome.mockResolvedValue({
-      pid: 321,
-      exe: { kind: "chromium", path: "/usr/bin/chromium" },
-      userDataDir: "/tmp/openclaw-test",
-      cdpPort: 18800,
-      startedAt: Date.now(),
-      proc,
-    });
+    mockLaunchedChrome(launchOpenClawChrome, 321);
 
     const state = makeBrowserState();
     const ctx = createBrowserRouteContext({ getState: () => state });
diff --git a/src/browser/server-context.remote-tab-ops.test.ts b/src/browser/server-context.remote-tab-ops.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b6127478390
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/browser/server-context.remote-tab-ops.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,623 @@
+import { afterEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+import { withFetchPreconnect } from "../test-utils/fetch-mock.js";
+import "./server-context.chrome-test-harness.js";
+import * as cdpModule from "./cdp.js";
+import * as chromeModule from "./chrome.js";
+import { InvalidBrowserNavigationUrlError } from "./navigation-guard.js";
+import * as pwAiModule from "./pw-ai-module.js";
+import type { BrowserServerState } from "./server-context.js";
+import { createBrowserRouteContext } from "./server-context.js";
+
+const originalFetch = globalThis.fetch;
+
+afterEach(() => {
+  globalThis.fetch = originalFetch;
+  vi.restoreAllMocks();
+});
+
+function makeState(
+  profile: "remote" | "openclaw",
+): BrowserServerState & { profiles: Map<string, { lastTargetId?: string | null }> } {
+  return {
+    // oxlint-disable-next-line typescript/no-explicit-any
+    server: null as any,
+    port: 0,
+    resolved: {
+      enabled: true,
+      controlPort: 18791,
+      cdpPortRangeStart: 18800,
+      cdpPortRangeEnd: 18899,
+      cdpProtocol: profile === "remote" ? "https" : "http",
+      cdpHost: profile === "remote" ? "browserless.example" : "127.0.0.1",
+      cdpIsLoopback: profile !== "remote",
+      remoteCdpTimeoutMs: 1500,
+      remoteCdpHandshakeTimeoutMs: 3000,
+      evaluateEnabled: false,
+      extraArgs: [],
+      color: "#FF4500",
+      headless: true,
+      noSandbox: false,
+      attachOnly: false,
+      ssrfPolicy: { allowPrivateNetwork: true },
+      defaultProfile: profile,
+      profiles: {
+        remote: {
+          cdpUrl: "https://browserless.example/chrome?token=abc",
+          cdpPort: 443,
+          color: "#00AA00",
+        },
+        openclaw: { cdpPort: 18800, color: "#FF4500" },
+      },
+    },
+    profiles: new Map(),
+  };
+}
+
+function makeUnexpectedFetchMock() {
+  return vi.fn(async () => {
+    throw new Error("unexpected fetch");
+  });
+}
+
+function createRemoteRouteHarness(fetchMock?: ReturnType<typeof vi.fn>) {
+  const activeFetchMock = fetchMock ?? makeUnexpectedFetchMock();
+  global.fetch = withFetchPreconnect(activeFetchMock);
+  const state = makeState("remote");
+  const ctx = createBrowserRouteContext({ getState: () => state });
+  return { state, remote: ctx.forProfile("remote"), fetchMock: activeFetchMock };
+}
+
+function createSequentialPageLister<T>(responses: T[]) {
+  return vi.fn(async () => {
+    const next = responses.shift();
+    if (!next) {
+      throw new Error("no more responses");
+    }
+    return next;
+  });
+}
+
+type JsonListEntry = {
+  id: string;
+  title: string;
+  url: string;
+  webSocketDebuggerUrl: string;
+  type: "page";
+};
+
+function createJsonListFetchMock(entries: JsonListEntry[]) {
+  return vi.fn(async (url: unknown) => {
+    const u = String(url);
+    if (!u.includes("/json/list")) {
+      throw new Error(`unexpected fetch: ${u}`);
+    }
+    return {
+      ok: true,
+      json: async () => entries,
+    } as unknown as Response;
+  });
+}
+
+function createOpenclawManagedTab(id: string, index: number): JsonListEntry {
+  return {
+    id,
+    title: String(index),
+    url: `http://127.0.0.1:300${index}`,
+    webSocketDebuggerUrl: `ws://127.0.0.1/devtools/page/${id}`,
+    type: "page",
+  };
+}
+
+function createOpenclawManagedTabs(params?: {
+  includeNew?: boolean;
+  newFirst?: boolean;
+}): JsonListEntry[] {
+  const oldTabs = Array.from({ length: 8 }, (_, idx) =>
+    createOpenclawManagedTab(`OLD${idx + 1}`, idx + 1),
+  );
+  if (params?.includeNew === false) {
+    return oldTabs;
+  }
+  const newTab = createOpenclawManagedTab("NEW", 9);
+  return params?.newFirst ? [newTab, ...oldTabs] : [...oldTabs, newTab];
+}
+
+function createOpenclawRouteHarness(
+  fetchMock: ReturnType<typeof vi.fn>,
+  params?: { attachOnly?: boolean; seedRunningProfile?: boolean },
+) {
+  global.fetch = withFetchPreconnect(fetchMock);
+  const state = makeState("openclaw");
+  if (params?.attachOnly) {
+    state.resolved.attachOnly = true;
+  }
+  if (params?.seedRunningProfile ?? true) {
+    (state.profiles as Map<string, unknown>).set("openclaw", {
+      profile: { name: "openclaw" },
+      running: { pid: 1234, proc: { on: vi.fn() } },
+      lastTargetId: null,
+    });
+  }
+  const ctx = createBrowserRouteContext({ getState: () => state });
+  return { state, openclaw: ctx.forProfile("openclaw") };
+}
+
+function createJsonOkResponse(payload: unknown): Response {
+  return {
+    ok: true,
+    json: async () => payload,
+  } as unknown as Response;
+}
+
+function createManagedTabsFetchMock(params: {
+  existingTabs: JsonListEntry[];
+  onClose?: (url: string) => Promise<Response> | Response;
+}) {
+  return vi.fn(async (url: unknown) => {
+    const value = String(url);
+    if (value.includes("/json/list")) {
+      return createJsonOkResponse(params.existingTabs);
+    }
+    if (value.includes("/json/close/")) {
+      if (params.onClose) {
+        return params.onClose(value);
+      }
+      throw new Error(`unexpected fetch: ${value}`);
+    }
+    throw new Error(`unexpected fetch: ${value}`);
+  });
+}
+
+async function expectManagedOldestTabClose(fetchMock: ReturnType<typeof vi.fn>) {
+  await vi.waitFor(() => {
+    expect(fetchMock).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+      expect.stringContaining("/json/close/OLD1"),
+      expect.any(Object),
+    );
+  });
+}
+
+describe("browser server-context remote profile tab operations", () => {
+  it("uses profile-level attachOnly when global attachOnly is false", async () => {
+    const state = makeState("openclaw");
+    state.resolved.attachOnly = false;
+    state.resolved.profiles.openclaw = {
+      cdpPort: 18800,
+      attachOnly: true,
+      color: "#FF4500",
+    };
+
+    const reachableMock = vi.mocked(chromeModule.isChromeReachable).mockResolvedValueOnce(false);
+    const launchMock = vi.mocked(chromeModule.launchOpenClawChrome);
+    const ctx = createBrowserRouteContext({ getState: () => state });
+
+    await expect(ctx.forProfile("openclaw").ensureBrowserAvailable()).rejects.toThrow(
+      /attachOnly is enabled/i,
+    );
+    expect(reachableMock).toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(launchMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+
+  it("keeps attachOnly websocket failures off the loopback ownership error path", async () => {
+    const state = makeState("openclaw");
+    state.resolved.attachOnly = false;
+    state.resolved.profiles.openclaw = {
+      cdpPort: 18800,
+      attachOnly: true,
+      color: "#FF4500",
+    };
+
+    const httpReachableMock = vi.mocked(chromeModule.isChromeReachable).mockResolvedValueOnce(true);
+    const wsReachableMock = vi.mocked(chromeModule.isChromeCdpReady).mockResolvedValueOnce(false);
+    const launchMock = vi.mocked(chromeModule.launchOpenClawChrome);
+    const ctx = createBrowserRouteContext({ getState: () => state });
+
+    await expect(ctx.forProfile("openclaw").ensureBrowserAvailable()).rejects.toThrow(
+      /attachOnly is enabled and CDP websocket/i,
+    );
+    expect(httpReachableMock).toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(wsReachableMock).toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(launchMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+
+  it("uses Playwright tab operations when available", async () => {
+    const listPagesViaPlaywright = vi.fn(async () => [
+      { targetId: "T1", title: "Tab 1", url: "https://example.com", type: "page" },
+    ]);
+    const createPageViaPlaywright = vi.fn(async () => ({
+      targetId: "T2",
+      title: "Tab 2",
+      url: "http://127.0.0.1:3000",
+      type: "page",
+    }));
+    const closePageByTargetIdViaPlaywright = vi.fn(async () => {});
+
+    vi.spyOn(pwAiModule, "getPwAiModule").mockResolvedValue({
+      listPagesViaPlaywright,
+      createPageViaPlaywright,
+      closePageByTargetIdViaPlaywright,
+    } as unknown as Awaited<ReturnType<typeof pwAiModule.getPwAiModule>>);
+
+    const { state, remote, fetchMock } = createRemoteRouteHarness();
+
+    const tabs = await remote.listTabs();
+    expect(tabs.map((t) => t.targetId)).toEqual(["T1"]);
+
+    const opened = await remote.openTab("http://127.0.0.1:3000");
+    expect(opened.targetId).toBe("T2");
+    expect(state.profiles.get("remote")?.lastTargetId).toBe("T2");
+    expect(createPageViaPlaywright).toHaveBeenCalledWith({
+      cdpUrl: "https://browserless.example/chrome?token=abc",
+      url: "http://127.0.0.1:3000",
+      ssrfPolicy: { allowPrivateNetwork: true },
+    });
+
+    await remote.closeTab("T1");
+    expect(closePageByTargetIdViaPlaywright).toHaveBeenCalledWith({
+      cdpUrl: "https://browserless.example/chrome?token=abc",
+      targetId: "T1",
+    });
+    expect(fetchMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+
+  it("prefers lastTargetId for remote profiles when targetId is omitted", async () => {
+    const responses = [
+      // ensureTabAvailable() calls listTabs twice
+      [
+        { targetId: "A", title: "A", url: "https://example.com", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "B", title: "B", url: "https://www.example.com", type: "page" },
+      ],
+      [
+        { targetId: "A", title: "A", url: "https://example.com", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "B", title: "B", url: "https://www.example.com", type: "page" },
+      ],
+      // second ensureTabAvailable() calls listTabs twice, order flips
+      [
+        { targetId: "B", title: "B", url: "https://www.example.com", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "A", title: "A", url: "https://example.com", type: "page" },
+      ],
+      [
+        { targetId: "B", title: "B", url: "https://www.example.com", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "A", title: "A", url: "https://example.com", type: "page" },
+      ],
+    ];
+
+    const listPagesViaPlaywright = vi.fn(async () => {
+      const next = responses.shift();
+      if (!next) {
+        throw new Error("no more responses");
+      }
+      return next;
+    });
+
+    vi.spyOn(pwAiModule, "getPwAiModule").mockResolvedValue({
+      listPagesViaPlaywright,
+      createPageViaPlaywright: vi.fn(async () => {
+        throw new Error("unexpected create");
+      }),
+      closePageByTargetIdViaPlaywright: vi.fn(async () => {
+        throw new Error("unexpected close");
+      }),
+    } as unknown as Awaited<ReturnType<typeof pwAiModule.getPwAiModule>>);
+
+    const { remote } = createRemoteRouteHarness();
+
+    const first = await remote.ensureTabAvailable();
+    expect(first.targetId).toBe("A");
+    const second = await remote.ensureTabAvailable();
+    expect(second.targetId).toBe("A");
+  });
+
+  it("falls back to the only tab for remote profiles when targetId is stale", async () => {
+    const responses = [
+      [{ targetId: "T1", title: "Tab 1", url: "https://example.com", type: "page" }],
+      [{ targetId: "T1", title: "Tab 1", url: "https://example.com", type: "page" }],
+    ];
+    const listPagesViaPlaywright = createSequentialPageLister(responses);
+
+    vi.spyOn(pwAiModule, "getPwAiModule").mockResolvedValue({
+      listPagesViaPlaywright,
+    } as unknown as Awaited<ReturnType<typeof pwAiModule.getPwAiModule>>);
+
+    const { remote } = createRemoteRouteHarness();
+    const chosen = await remote.ensureTabAvailable("STALE_TARGET");
+    expect(chosen.targetId).toBe("T1");
+  });
+
+  it("keeps rejecting stale targetId for remote profiles when multiple tabs exist", async () => {
+    const responses = [
+      [
+        { targetId: "A", title: "A", url: "https://a.example", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "B", title: "B", url: "https://b.example", type: "page" },
+      ],
+      [
+        { targetId: "A", title: "A", url: "https://a.example", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "B", title: "B", url: "https://b.example", type: "page" },
+      ],
+    ];
+    const listPagesViaPlaywright = createSequentialPageLister(responses);
+
+    vi.spyOn(pwAiModule, "getPwAiModule").mockResolvedValue({
+      listPagesViaPlaywright,
+    } as unknown as Awaited<ReturnType<typeof pwAiModule.getPwAiModule>>);
+
+    const { remote } = createRemoteRouteHarness();
+    await expect(remote.ensureTabAvailable("STALE_TARGET")).rejects.toThrow(/tab not found/i);
+  });
+
+  it("uses Playwright focus for remote profiles when available", async () => {
+    const listPagesViaPlaywright = vi.fn(async () => [
+      { targetId: "T1", title: "Tab 1", url: "https://example.com", type: "page" },
+    ]);
+    const focusPageByTargetIdViaPlaywright = vi.fn(async () => {});
+
+    vi.spyOn(pwAiModule, "getPwAiModule").mockResolvedValue({
+      listPagesViaPlaywright,
+      focusPageByTargetIdViaPlaywright,
+    } as unknown as Awaited<ReturnType<typeof pwAiModule.getPwAiModule>>);
+
+    const { state, remote, fetchMock } = createRemoteRouteHarness();
+
+    await remote.focusTab("T1");
+    expect(focusPageByTargetIdViaPlaywright).toHaveBeenCalledWith({
+      cdpUrl: "https://browserless.example/chrome?token=abc",
+      targetId: "T1",
+    });
+    expect(fetchMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(state.profiles.get("remote")?.lastTargetId).toBe("T1");
+  });
+
+  it("does not swallow Playwright runtime errors for remote profiles", async () => {
+    vi.spyOn(pwAiModule, "getPwAiModule").mockResolvedValue({
+      listPagesViaPlaywright: vi.fn(async () => {
+        throw new Error("boom");
+      }),
+    } as unknown as Awaited<ReturnType<typeof pwAiModule.getPwAiModule>>);
+
+    const { remote, fetchMock } = createRemoteRouteHarness();
+
+    await expect(remote.listTabs()).rejects.toThrow(/boom/);
+    expect(fetchMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+
+  it("falls back to /json/list when Playwright is not available", async () => {
+    vi.spyOn(pwAiModule, "getPwAiModule").mockResolvedValue(null);
+
+    const fetchMock = createJsonListFetchMock([
+      {
+        id: "T1",
+        title: "Tab 1",
+        url: "https://example.com",
+        webSocketDebuggerUrl: "wss://browserless.example/devtools/page/T1",
+        type: "page",
+      },
+    ]);
+
+    const { remote } = createRemoteRouteHarness(fetchMock);
+
+    const tabs = await remote.listTabs();
+    expect(tabs.map((t) => t.targetId)).toEqual(["T1"]);
+    expect(fetchMock).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
+  });
+
+  it("does not enforce managed tab cap for remote openclaw profiles", async () => {
+    const listPagesViaPlaywright = vi
+      .fn()
+      .mockResolvedValueOnce([
+        { targetId: "T1", title: "1", url: "https://1.example", type: "page" },
+      ])
+      .mockResolvedValueOnce([
+        { targetId: "T1", title: "1", url: "https://1.example", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "T2", title: "2", url: "https://2.example", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "T3", title: "3", url: "https://3.example", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "T4", title: "4", url: "https://4.example", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "T5", title: "5", url: "https://5.example", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "T6", title: "6", url: "https://6.example", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "T7", title: "7", url: "https://7.example", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "T8", title: "8", url: "https://8.example", type: "page" },
+        { targetId: "T9", title: "9", url: "https://9.example", type: "page" },
+      ]);
+
+    const createPageViaPlaywright = vi.fn(async () => ({
+      targetId: "T1",
+      title: "Tab 1",
+      url: "https://1.example",
+      type: "page",
+    }));
+
+    vi.spyOn(pwAiModule, "getPwAiModule").mockResolvedValue({
+      listPagesViaPlaywright,
+      createPageViaPlaywright,
+    } as unknown as Awaited<ReturnType<typeof pwAiModule.getPwAiModule>>);
+
+    const fetchMock = vi.fn(async (url: unknown) => {
+      throw new Error(`unexpected fetch: ${String(url)}`);
+    });
+
+    const { remote } = createRemoteRouteHarness(fetchMock);
+    const opened = await remote.openTab("https://1.example");
+    expect(opened.targetId).toBe("T1");
+    expect(fetchMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+});
+
+describe("browser server-context tab selection state", () => {
+  it("updates lastTargetId when openTab is created via CDP", async () => {
+    const createTargetViaCdp = vi
+      .spyOn(cdpModule, "createTargetViaCdp")
+      .mockResolvedValue({ targetId: "CREATED" });
+
+    const fetchMock = createJsonListFetchMock([
+      {
+        id: "CREATED",
+        title: "New Tab",
+        url: "http://127.0.0.1:8080",
+        webSocketDebuggerUrl: "ws://127.0.0.1/devtools/page/CREATED",
+        type: "page",
+      },
+    ]);
+
+    global.fetch = withFetchPreconnect(fetchMock);
+
+    const state = makeState("openclaw");
+    const ctx = createBrowserRouteContext({ getState: () => state });
+    const openclaw = ctx.forProfile("openclaw");
+
+    const opened = await openclaw.openTab("http://127.0.0.1:8080");
+    expect(opened.targetId).toBe("CREATED");
+    expect(state.profiles.get("openclaw")?.lastTargetId).toBe("CREATED");
+    expect(createTargetViaCdp).toHaveBeenCalledWith({
+      cdpUrl: "http://127.0.0.1:18800",
+      url: "http://127.0.0.1:8080",
+      ssrfPolicy: { allowPrivateNetwork: true },
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("closes excess managed tabs after opening a new tab", async () => {
+    vi.spyOn(cdpModule, "createTargetViaCdp").mockResolvedValue({ targetId: "NEW" });
+    const existingTabs = createOpenclawManagedTabs();
+
+    const fetchMock = createManagedTabsFetchMock({
+      existingTabs,
+      onClose: (value) => {
+        if (value.includes("/json/close/OLD1")) {
+          return createJsonOkResponse({});
+        }
+        throw new Error(`unexpected fetch: ${value}`);
+      },
+    });
+
+    const { openclaw } = createOpenclawRouteHarness(fetchMock);
+
+    const opened = await openclaw.openTab("http://127.0.0.1:3009");
+    expect(opened.targetId).toBe("NEW");
+    await expectManagedOldestTabClose(fetchMock);
+  });
+
+  it("never closes the just-opened managed tab during cap cleanup", async () => {
+    vi.spyOn(cdpModule, "createTargetViaCdp").mockResolvedValue({ targetId: "NEW" });
+    const existingTabs = createOpenclawManagedTabs({ newFirst: true });
+
+    const fetchMock = createManagedTabsFetchMock({
+      existingTabs,
+      onClose: (value) => {
+        if (value.includes("/json/close/OLD1")) {
+          return createJsonOkResponse({});
+        }
+        if (value.includes("/json/close/NEW")) {
+          throw new Error("cleanup must not close NEW");
+        }
+        throw new Error(`unexpected fetch: ${value}`);
+      },
+    });
+
+    const { openclaw } = createOpenclawRouteHarness(fetchMock);
+
+    const opened = await openclaw.openTab("http://127.0.0.1:3009");
+    expect(opened.targetId).toBe("NEW");
+    await expectManagedOldestTabClose(fetchMock);
+    expect(fetchMock).not.toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+      expect.stringContaining("/json/close/NEW"),
+      expect.anything(),
+    );
+  });
+
+  it("does not fail tab open when managed-tab cleanup list fails", async () => {
+    vi.spyOn(cdpModule, "createTargetViaCdp").mockResolvedValue({ targetId: "NEW" });
+
+    let listCount = 0;
+    const fetchMock = vi.fn(async (url: unknown) => {
+      const value = String(url);
+      if (value.includes("/json/list")) {
+        listCount += 1;
+        if (listCount === 1) {
+          return {
+            ok: true,
+            json: async () => [
+              {
+                id: "NEW",
+                title: "New Tab",
+                url: "http://127.0.0.1:3009",
+                webSocketDebuggerUrl: "ws://127.0.0.1/devtools/page/NEW",
+                type: "page",
+              },
+            ],
+          } as unknown as Response;
+        }
+        throw new Error("/json/list timeout");
+      }
+      throw new Error(`unexpected fetch: ${value}`);
+    });
+
+    const { openclaw } = createOpenclawRouteHarness(fetchMock);
+
+    const opened = await openclaw.openTab("http://127.0.0.1:3009");
+    expect(opened.targetId).toBe("NEW");
+  });
+
+  it("does not run managed tab cleanup in attachOnly mode", async () => {
+    vi.spyOn(cdpModule, "createTargetViaCdp").mockResolvedValue({ targetId: "NEW" });
+    const existingTabs = createOpenclawManagedTabs();
+
+    const fetchMock = createManagedTabsFetchMock({
+      existingTabs,
+      onClose: (_value) => {
+        throw new Error("should not close tabs in attachOnly mode");
+      },
+    });
+
+    const { openclaw } = createOpenclawRouteHarness(fetchMock, {
+      attachOnly: true,
+      seedRunningProfile: false,
+    });
+
+    const opened = await openclaw.openTab("http://127.0.0.1:3009");
+    expect(opened.targetId).toBe("NEW");
+    expect(fetchMock).not.toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+      expect.stringContaining("/json/close/"),
+      expect.anything(),
+    );
+  });
+
+  it("does not block openTab on slow best-effort cleanup closes", async () => {
+    vi.spyOn(cdpModule, "createTargetViaCdp").mockResolvedValue({ targetId: "NEW" });
+    const existingTabs = createOpenclawManagedTabs();
+
+    const fetchMock = createManagedTabsFetchMock({
+      existingTabs,
+      onClose: (value) => {
+        if (value.includes("/json/close/OLD1")) {
+          return new Promise<Response>(() => {});
+        }
+        throw new Error(`unexpected fetch: ${value}`);
+      },
+    });
+
+    const { openclaw } = createOpenclawRouteHarness(fetchMock);
+
+    const opened = await Promise.race([
+      openclaw.openTab("http://127.0.0.1:3009"),
+      new Promise<never>((_, reject) =>
+        setTimeout(() => reject(new Error("openTab timed out waiting for cleanup")), 300),
+      ),
+    ]);
+
+    expect(opened.targetId).toBe("NEW");
+  });
+
+  it("blocks unsupported non-network URLs before any HTTP tab-open fallback", async () => {
+    const fetchMock = vi.fn(async () => {
+      throw new Error("unexpected fetch");
+    });
+
+    global.fetch = withFetchPreconnect(fetchMock);
+    const state = makeState("openclaw");
+    const ctx = createBrowserRouteContext({ getState: () => state });
+    const openclaw = ctx.forProfile("openclaw");
+
+    await expect(openclaw.openTab("file:///etc/passwd")).rejects.toBeInstanceOf(
+      InvalidBrowserNavigationUrlError,
+    );
+    expect(fetchMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/logger.ts b/src/logger.ts
index 4ae1cb20d53..f8b94b0764f 100644
--- a/src/logger.ts
+++ b/src/logger.ts
@@ -14,44 +14,68 @@ function splitSubsystem(message: string) {
   return { subsystem, rest };
 }
 
-export function logInfo(message: string, runtime: RuntimeEnv = defaultRuntime) {
-  const parsed = runtime === defaultRuntime ? splitSubsystem(message) : null;
+type LogMethod = "info" | "warn" | "error";
+type RuntimeMethod = "log" | "error";
+
+function logWithSubsystem(params: {
+  message: string;
+  runtime: RuntimeEnv;
+  runtimeMethod: RuntimeMethod;
+  runtimeFormatter: (value: string) => string;
+  loggerMethod: LogMethod;
+  subsystemMethod: LogMethod;
+}) {
+  const parsed = params.runtime === defaultRuntime ? splitSubsystem(params.message) : null;
   if (parsed) {
-    createSubsystemLogger(parsed.subsystem).info(parsed.rest);
+    createSubsystemLogger(parsed.subsystem)[params.subsystemMethod](parsed.rest);
     return;
   }
-  runtime.log(info(message));
-  getLogger().info(message);
+  params.runtime[params.runtimeMethod](params.runtimeFormatter(params.message));
+  getLogger()[params.loggerMethod](params.message);
+}
+
+export function logInfo(message: string, runtime: RuntimeEnv = defaultRuntime) {
+  logWithSubsystem({
+    message,
+    runtime,
+    runtimeMethod: "log",
+    runtimeFormatter: info,
+    loggerMethod: "info",
+    subsystemMethod: "info",
+  });
 }
 
 export function logWarn(message: string, runtime: RuntimeEnv = defaultRuntime) {
-  const parsed = runtime === defaultRuntime ? splitSubsystem(message) : null;
-  if (parsed) {
-    createSubsystemLogger(parsed.subsystem).warn(parsed.rest);
-    return;
-  }
-  runtime.log(warn(message));
-  getLogger().warn(message);
+  logWithSubsystem({
+    message,
+    runtime,
+    runtimeMethod: "log",
+    runtimeFormatter: warn,
+    loggerMethod: "warn",
+    subsystemMethod: "warn",
+  });
 }
 
 export function logSuccess(message: string, runtime: RuntimeEnv = defaultRuntime) {
-  const parsed = runtime === defaultRuntime ? splitSubsystem(message) : null;
-  if (parsed) {
-    createSubsystemLogger(parsed.subsystem).info(parsed.rest);
-    return;
-  }
-  runtime.log(success(message));
-  getLogger().info(message);
+  logWithSubsystem({
+    message,
+    runtime,
+    runtimeMethod: "log",
+    runtimeFormatter: success,
+    loggerMethod: "info",
+    subsystemMethod: "info",
+  });
 }
 
 export function logError(message: string, runtime: RuntimeEnv = defaultRuntime) {
-  const parsed = runtime === defaultRuntime ? splitSubsystem(message) : null;
-  if (parsed) {
-    createSubsystemLogger(parsed.subsystem).error(parsed.rest);
-    return;
-  }
-  runtime.error(danger(message));
-  getLogger().error(message);
+  logWithSubsystem({
+    message,
+    runtime,
+    runtimeMethod: "error",
+    runtimeFormatter: danger,
+    loggerMethod: "error",
+    subsystemMethod: "error",
+  });
 }
 
 export function logDebug(message: string) {
diff --git a/src/logging/console-capture.test.ts b/src/logging/console-capture.test.ts
index 42339c195bf..87827c23927 100644
--- a/src/logging/console-capture.test.ts
+++ b/src/logging/console-capture.test.ts
@@ -10,27 +10,16 @@ import {
   setLoggerOverride,
 } from "../logging.js";
 import { loggingState } from "./state.js";
-
-type ConsoleSnapshot = {
-  log: typeof console.log;
-  info: typeof console.info;
-  warn: typeof console.warn;
-  error: typeof console.error;
-  debug: typeof console.debug;
-  trace: typeof console.trace;
-};
+import {
+  captureConsoleSnapshot,
+  type ConsoleSnapshot,
+  restoreConsoleSnapshot,
+} from "./test-helpers/console-snapshot.js";
 
 let snapshot: ConsoleSnapshot;
 
 beforeEach(() => {
-  snapshot = {
-    log: console.log,
-    info: console.info,
-    warn: console.warn,
-    error: console.error,
-    debug: console.debug,
-    trace: console.trace,
-  };
+  snapshot = captureConsoleSnapshot();
   loggingState.consolePatched = false;
   loggingState.forceConsoleToStderr = false;
   loggingState.consoleTimestampPrefix = false;
@@ -39,12 +28,7 @@ beforeEach(() => {
 });
 
 afterEach(() => {
-  console.log = snapshot.log;
-  console.info = snapshot.info;
-  console.warn = snapshot.warn;
-  console.error = snapshot.error;
-  console.debug = snapshot.debug;
-  console.trace = snapshot.trace;
+  restoreConsoleSnapshot(snapshot);
   loggingState.consolePatched = false;
   loggingState.forceConsoleToStderr = false;
   loggingState.consoleTimestampPrefix = false;
diff --git a/src/logging/console-settings.test.ts b/src/logging/console-settings.test.ts
index 6431b67c8e9..7beeee111c9 100644
--- a/src/logging/console-settings.test.ts
+++ b/src/logging/console-settings.test.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,9 @@
 import { afterEach, beforeAll, beforeEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+import {
+  captureConsoleSnapshot,
+  type ConsoleSnapshot,
+  restoreConsoleSnapshot,
+} from "./test-helpers/console-snapshot.js";
 
 vi.mock("./config.js", () => ({
   readLoggingConfig: () => undefined,
@@ -16,15 +21,6 @@ vi.mock("./logger.js", () => ({
 }));
 
 let loadConfigCalls = 0;
-type ConsoleSnapshot = {
-  log: typeof console.log;
-  info: typeof console.info;
-  warn: typeof console.warn;
-  error: typeof console.error;
-  debug: typeof console.debug;
-  trace: typeof console.trace;
-};
-
 let originalIsTty: boolean | undefined;
 let originalOpenClawTestConsole: string | undefined;
 let snapshot: ConsoleSnapshot;
@@ -38,14 +34,7 @@ beforeAll(async () => {
 
 beforeEach(() => {
   loadConfigCalls = 0;
-  snapshot = {
-    log: console.log,
-    info: console.info,
-    warn: console.warn,
-    error: console.error,
-    debug: console.debug,
-    trace: console.trace,
-  };
+  snapshot = captureConsoleSnapshot();
   originalIsTty = process.stdout.isTTY;
   originalOpenClawTestConsole = process.env.OPENCLAW_TEST_CONSOLE;
   process.env.OPENCLAW_TEST_CONSOLE = "1";
@@ -53,6 +42,7 @@ beforeEach(() => {
 });
 
 afterEach(() => {
+<<<<<<< HEAD
   console.log = snapshot.log;
   console.info = snapshot.info;
   console.warn = snapshot.warn;
@@ -64,6 +54,16 @@ afterEach(() => {
   } else {
     process.env.OPENCLAW_TEST_CONSOLE = originalOpenClawTestConsole;
   }
+||||||| parent of 4a741746c (refactor: dedupe agent and reply runtimes)
+  console.log = snapshot.log;
+  console.info = snapshot.info;
+  console.warn = snapshot.warn;
+  console.error = snapshot.error;
+  console.debug = snapshot.debug;
+  console.trace = snapshot.trace;
+=======
+  restoreConsoleSnapshot(snapshot);
+>>>>>>> 4a741746c (refactor: dedupe agent and reply runtimes)
   Object.defineProperty(process.stdout, "isTTY", { value: originalIsTty, configurable: true });
   logging.setConsoleConfigLoaderForTests();
   vi.restoreAllMocks();
diff --git a/src/logging/test-helpers/console-snapshot.ts b/src/logging/test-helpers/console-snapshot.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d6b1f1ee36f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/logging/test-helpers/console-snapshot.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+export type ConsoleSnapshot = {
+  log: typeof console.log;
+  info: typeof console.info;
+  warn: typeof console.warn;
+  error: typeof console.error;
+  debug: typeof console.debug;
+  trace: typeof console.trace;
+};
+
+export function captureConsoleSnapshot(): ConsoleSnapshot {
+  return {
+    log: console.log,
+    info: console.info,
+    warn: console.warn,
+    error: console.error,
+    debug: console.debug,
+    trace: console.trace,
+  };
+}
+
+export function restoreConsoleSnapshot(snapshot: ConsoleSnapshot): void {
+  console.log = snapshot.log;
+  console.info = snapshot.info;
+  console.warn = snapshot.warn;
+  console.error = snapshot.error;
+  console.debug = snapshot.debug;
+  console.trace = snapshot.trace;
+}
diff --git a/src/node-host/invoke-system-run.test.ts b/src/node-host/invoke-system-run.test.ts
index 6296ae6f101..c7f63d453df 100644
--- a/src/node-host/invoke-system-run.test.ts
+++ b/src/node-host/invoke-system-run.test.ts
@@ -87,6 +87,48 @@ describe("handleSystemRunInvoke mac app exec host routing", () => {
     return [...Array(params.depth).fill("/usr/bin/env"), "/bin/sh", "-c", params.payload];
   }
 
+  function createMacExecHostSuccess(stdout = "app-ok"): ExecHostResponse {
+    return {
+      ok: true,
+      payload: {
+        success: true,
+        stdout,
+        stderr: "",
+        timedOut: false,
+        exitCode: 0,
+        error: null,
+      },
+    };
+  }
+
+  function createAllowlistOnMissApprovals(params?: {
+    autoAllowSkills?: boolean;
+    agents?: Parameters<typeof saveExecApprovals>[0]["agents"];
+  }): Parameters<typeof saveExecApprovals>[0] {
+    return {
+      version: 1,
+      defaults: {
+        security: "allowlist",
+        ask: "on-miss",
+        askFallback: "deny",
+        ...(params?.autoAllowSkills ? { autoAllowSkills: true } : {}),
+      },
+      agents: params?.agents ?? {},
+    };
+  }
+
+  function createInvokeSpies(params?: { runCommand?: MockedRunCommand }): {
+    runCommand: MockedRunCommand;
+    sendInvokeResult: MockedSendInvokeResult;
+    sendNodeEvent: MockedSendNodeEvent;
+  } {
+    return {
+      runCommand: params?.runCommand ?? vi.fn(async () => createLocalRunResult()),
+      sendInvokeResult: vi.fn(async () => {}),
+      sendNodeEvent: vi.fn(async () => {}),
+    };
+  }
+
   async function withTempApprovalsHome<T>(params: {
     approvals: Parameters<typeof saveExecApprovals>[0];
     run: (ctx: { tempHome: string }) => Promise<T>;
@@ -246,17 +288,7 @@ describe("handleSystemRunInvoke mac app exec host routing", () => {
   it("uses mac app exec host when explicitly preferred", async () => {
     const { runCommand, runViaMacAppExecHost, sendInvokeResult } = await runSystemInvoke({
       preferMacAppExecHost: true,
-      runViaResponse: {
-        ok: true,
-        payload: {
-          success: true,
-          stdout: "app-ok",
-          stderr: "",
-          timedOut: false,
-          exitCode: 0,
-          error: null,
-        },
-      },
+      runViaResponse: createMacExecHostSuccess(),
     });
 
     expect(runViaMacAppExecHost).toHaveBeenCalledWith({
@@ -278,17 +310,7 @@ describe("handleSystemRunInvoke mac app exec host routing", () => {
     const { runViaMacAppExecHost } = await runSystemInvoke({
       preferMacAppExecHost: true,
       command: ["/bin/sh", "-lc", '$0 "$1"', "/usr/bin/touch", "/tmp/marker"],
-      runViaResponse: {
-        ok: true,
-        payload: {
-          success: true,
-          stdout: "app-ok",
-          stderr: "",
-          timedOut: false,
-          exitCode: 0,
-          error: null,
-        },
-      },
+      runViaResponse: createMacExecHostSuccess(),
     });
 
     expect(runViaMacAppExecHost).toHaveBeenCalledWith({
@@ -584,21 +606,10 @@ describe("handleSystemRunInvoke mac app exec host routing", () => {
   });
 
   it("denies ./skill-bin even when autoAllowSkills trust entry exists", async () => {
-    const runCommand = vi.fn(async () => createLocalRunResult());
-    const sendInvokeResult = vi.fn(async () => {});
-    const sendNodeEvent = vi.fn(async () => {});
+    const { runCommand, sendInvokeResult, sendNodeEvent } = createInvokeSpies();
 
     await withTempApprovalsHome({
-      approvals: {
-        version: 1,
-        defaults: {
-          security: "allowlist",
-          ask: "on-miss",
-          askFallback: "deny",
-          autoAllowSkills: true,
-        },
-        agents: {},
-      },
+      approvals: createAllowlistOnMissApprovals({ autoAllowSkills: true }),
       run: async ({ tempHome }) => {
         const skillBinPath = path.join(tempHome, "skill-bin");
         fs.writeFileSync(skillBinPath, "#!/bin/sh\necho should-not-run\n", { mode: 0o755 });
@@ -656,26 +667,20 @@ describe("handleSystemRunInvoke mac app exec host routing", () => {
     if (process.platform === "win32") {
       return;
     }
-    const runCommand = vi.fn(async () => {
-      throw new Error("runCommand should not be called for nested env depth overflow");
+    const { runCommand, sendInvokeResult, sendNodeEvent } = createInvokeSpies({
+      runCommand: vi.fn(async () => {
+        throw new Error("runCommand should not be called for nested env depth overflow");
+      }),
     });
-    const sendInvokeResult = vi.fn(async () => {});
-    const sendNodeEvent = vi.fn(async () => {});
 
     await withTempApprovalsHome({
-      approvals: {
-        version: 1,
-        defaults: {
-          security: "allowlist",
-          ask: "on-miss",
-          askFallback: "deny",
-        },
+      approvals: createAllowlistOnMissApprovals({
         agents: {
           main: {
             allowlist: [{ pattern: "/usr/bin/env" }],
           },
         },
-      },
+      }),
       run: async ({ tempHome }) => {
         const marker = path.join(tempHome, "pwned.txt");
         await runSystemInvoke({
diff --git a/src/node-host/invoke-system-run.ts b/src/node-host/invoke-system-run.ts
index 94173ec005f..78e5d589f8e 100644
--- a/src/node-host/invoke-system-run.ts
+++ b/src/node-host/invoke-system-run.ts
@@ -26,6 +26,7 @@ import {
 import { hardenApprovedExecutionPaths } from "./invoke-system-run-plan.js";
 import type {
   ExecEventPayload,
+  ExecFinishedEventParams,
   RunResult,
   SkillBinsProvider,
   SystemRunParams,
@@ -129,19 +130,7 @@ export type HandleSystemRunInvokeOptions = {
   sendNodeEvent: (client: GatewayClient, event: string, payload: unknown) => Promise<void>;
   buildExecEventPayload: (payload: ExecEventPayload) => ExecEventPayload;
   sendInvokeResult: (result: SystemRunInvokeResult) => Promise<void>;
-  sendExecFinishedEvent: (params: {
-    sessionKey: string;
-    runId: string;
-    cmdText: string;
-    result: {
-      stdout?: string;
-      stderr?: string;
-      error?: string | null;
-      exitCode?: number | null;
-      timedOut?: boolean;
-      success?: boolean;
-    };
-  }) => Promise<void>;
+  sendExecFinishedEvent: (params: ExecFinishedEventParams) => Promise<void>;
   preferMacAppExecHost: boolean;
 };
 
diff --git a/src/node-host/invoke-types.ts b/src/node-host/invoke-types.ts
index 7246ba2925f..72ffe75c2d7 100644
--- a/src/node-host/invoke-types.ts
+++ b/src/node-host/invoke-types.ts
@@ -36,6 +36,22 @@ export type ExecEventPayload = {
   reason?: string;
 };
 
+export type ExecFinishedResult = {
+  stdout?: string;
+  stderr?: string;
+  error?: string | null;
+  exitCode?: number | null;
+  timedOut?: boolean;
+  success?: boolean;
+};
+
+export type ExecFinishedEventParams = {
+  sessionKey: string;
+  runId: string;
+  cmdText: string;
+  result: ExecFinishedResult;
+};
+
 export type SkillBinsProvider = {
   current(force?: boolean): Promise<SkillBinTrustEntry[]>;
 };
diff --git a/src/node-host/invoke.ts b/src/node-host/invoke.ts
index 5d2fdd3d15c..bd570201eca 100644
--- a/src/node-host/invoke.ts
+++ b/src/node-host/invoke.ts
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ import { runBrowserProxyCommand } from "./invoke-browser.js";
 import { buildSystemRunApprovalPlan, handleSystemRunInvoke } from "./invoke-system-run.js";
 import type {
   ExecEventPayload,
+  ExecFinishedEventParams,
   RunResult,
   SkillBinsProvider,
   SystemRunParams,
@@ -334,20 +335,11 @@ function buildExecEventPayload(payload: ExecEventPayload): ExecEventPayload {
   return { ...payload, output: text };
 }
 
-async function sendExecFinishedEvent(params: {
-  client: GatewayClient;
-  sessionKey: string;
-  runId: string;
-  cmdText: string;
-  result: {
-    stdout?: string;
-    stderr?: string;
-    error?: string | null;
-    exitCode?: number | null;
-    timedOut?: boolean;
-    success?: boolean;
-  };
-}) {
+async function sendExecFinishedEvent(
+  params: ExecFinishedEventParams & {
+    client: GatewayClient;
+  },
+) {
   const combined = [params.result.stdout, params.result.stderr, params.result.error]
     .filter(Boolean)
     .join("\n");
diff --git a/src/providers/google-shared.test-helpers.ts b/src/providers/google-shared.test-helpers.ts
index c98fad72af1..80839ae6085 100644
--- a/src/providers/google-shared.test-helpers.ts
+++ b/src/providers/google-shared.test-helpers.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import type { Model } from "@mariozechner/pi-ai/dist/types.js";
 import { expect } from "vitest";
+import { makeZeroUsageSnapshot } from "../agents/usage.js";
 
 export const asRecord = (value: unknown): Record<string, unknown> => {
   expect(value).toBeTruthy();
@@ -48,23 +49,6 @@ export const makeGeminiCliModel = (id: string): Model<"google-gemini-cli"> =>
     maxTokens: 1,
   }) as Model<"google-gemini-cli">;
 
-function makeZeroUsage() {
-  return {
-    input: 0,
-    output: 0,
-    cacheRead: 0,
-    cacheWrite: 0,
-    totalTokens: 0,
-    cost: {
-      input: 0,
-      output: 0,
-      cacheRead: 0,
-      cacheWrite: 0,
-      total: 0,
-    },
-  };
-}
-
 export function makeGoogleAssistantMessage(model: string, content: unknown) {
   return {
     role: "assistant",
@@ -72,7 +56,7 @@ export function makeGoogleAssistantMessage(model: string, content: unknown) {
     api: "google-generative-ai",
     provider: "google",
     model,
-    usage: makeZeroUsage(),
+    usage: makeZeroUsageSnapshot(),
     stopReason: "stop",
     timestamp: 0,
   };
@@ -85,7 +69,7 @@ export function makeGeminiCliAssistantMessage(model: string, content: unknown) {
     api: "google-gemini-cli",
     provider: "google-gemini-cli",
     model,
-    usage: makeZeroUsage(),
+    usage: makeZeroUsageSnapshot(),
     stopReason: "stop",
     timestamp: 0,
   };